Politics,governance

POLITICS, GOVERNANCE (& THE PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION)
MID TERM EXAM

1. It is that written instrument by which the
fundamental powers of the government are
established, limited, and defined and by which these
powers are distributed among the several
departments or branches for their safe and useful
exercise for the benefit of the people.
a. Constitution b. Statute of the
Philippines c. Ordinance of the
Philippines d. Constitution of the Philippines

2. It is a form of constitution that is regarded as a
document of special sanctity which cannot be
amended or altered except by some special
machinery more cumbersome than the ordinary
legislative process.
a. Enacted b.
Unwritten c.
Inelastic d. Cumulative

3. What is that group of provisions that deal with the
framework of the government and its powers, and
defining the electorate?

a. Constitution of government b. Constitution of
liberty c. Constitution of sovereignty d. All of
the above

4. It is the Constitution drafted by a Constitutional
Commission created under the Article V of
Proclamation No. 3 issued on March 25, 1986 which
promulgated the Freedom Constitution following the
installation of a revolutionary government through a
direct exercise of the power of the Filipino people.
a. 1986 Provisional Constitution b. 1987
Constitution c. 1973 Constitution d.
1935 Constitution

5. Under what provision in the Constitution can you
find the Doctrine of Incorporation?
a. Art. II, Sec. 1 b. Art. II, Sec.
2 c. Art. II, Sec. 3 d. Art.
II, Sec. 4

6. Which of the following rules is adopted by the
Philippines in determining the limits of its territory?
a. 3-mile limit rule b. 12-mile
limit rule c. Archipelagic Doctrine d.
Archipelago Doctrine

7. What is the significance of the Archipelagic
principle of territoriality?
a. It prevents the danger of having open seas right at
the center or our territory.
b. It welcomes other nations to enter into our
territory without much requirements.
c. It opens our doors to enemy warships or other
foreign vessels and have friendly ties with them.
d. All of the above

8. If the State inflicted damages to the property of a
citizen, can the citizen just sue the State?
a. Yes, because he has the right to demand from the
State the indemnification of his property.
b. No, because of the principle of the non-suability of
the State.
c. No, because the citizen has no right to demand for
indemnifications.
d. None of the above.

9. Is it unconstitutional to declare war against the
NPA‘s?

a. Yes, because Art. II, Sec. 2 states that the
Philippines renounces war as an instrument of
national policy.
b. No, because this is in order to preserve peace and
integrity of the State.
c. Yes, because war in here is aggressive.
d. No, because rebels need to die.

10. What are some of the measures employed by the
Government to safeguard the State against military
dictatorship?
a. By vesting upon a civilian the highest authority in
the land, the Presidency.
b. By making the President the Commander-in-Chief
of the AFP.
c. By giving the President and the Congress the
power to determine the military budget and define
the national policy on defense and security.
d. All of the above

11. Which of the following explains the principle of
the separation of the Church and State?

a. No law shall be made respecting an establishment
of religion.
b. No public money or property shall ever be used for
any religious denomination.
c. The Church must not interfere with the affairs
exclusively for the State.
d. All of the above

12. Which of the following is NOT prohibited by the
State?
a. Nuclear power b. Abortion c.
Divorce d. None of the above

13. What is social justice?
a. Giving equal opportunity to all, rich and poor alike.
b. Giving preferential attention to the less fortunate.
c. Eradicating poverty through the abolition of private
property
d. Getting some from the rich and giving the same to
the poor.

14. It is the method by which a public officer may be
removed from office during his tenure or before the

expiration of his term by a vote of the people after
registration of the petition signed by the required
percentage of the qualified voters.
a. Plebiscite b. Referendum c.
Recall d. Impeachment

15. What is the difference between a citizen and an
alien?
1. A citizen is a member of a democratic community,
while an alien is only someone passing through
another country.
2. A citizen is a member of a democratic country who
is accorded protection inside and outside the
territory of the State, while an alien is a citizen of
another country who may only be protected inside
the territory where he is passing through.
3. A citizen is a member of a democratic country who
enjoys full civil and political rights while an alien is
someone who does not enjoy the same.
4. All of the above

16. A Bill of Local Application was submitted by
Senator Wade to the Senate Secretary. It has passed
three readings in the Senate and then in the
Congress. Thereafter, it was presented to the
President for approval, but the same was

disapproved. The President vehemently objected to
the validity of the entire process.
Is the President correct?
a. Yes, the Bill must first be submitted to a proper
committee.
b. No, it must be approved because there has been
no constitutional breach.
c. Yes, because the said Bill must only emanate from
the House of Representatives.
d. No, it may be initiated by the Senate because
either House of the Congress may do so.
e. Yes, because the President possesses an absolute
veto power.
f. No, the veto power is not absolute.
g. Yes, the law allows the president to disapprove any
bill submitted to him by the Congress.
h. No, the president acted in grave abuse of his
discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction.

17. President Juan Masipag filed an application for
appropriation, and in pursuance thereof money was
paid out of the National Treasury. It must be noted
that the appropriation is for a public purpose, and it is
not for any specific sect, church, denomination.

Is there something wrong with the presidential
appropriation?
a. None; it is perfectly valid.
b. The appropriation is unlawful because it is paid out
of the National Treasury.
c. It is invalid because the Senate President, not the
President, is empowered to apply for appropriation.
d. It is wrong because before public funds may be
used, an appropriations law must first be passed.
e. It is lawful; the President can by law file an
application for appropriation.
f. It is illegal because it should have been the
Congress that applied for the appropriations.

18. When the president dies, is permanently disabled,
is impeached, or resigns, the Vice-President becomes
President for the unexpired term. However, if both
the President and Vice-President die, become
permanently disabled, are impeached, or resigned,
the Senate President shall act as President until the
President or VP shall have been elected and qualified.
If the Senate President becomes disabled, who will
succeed?

a. The Speaker of the House shall become the
President.
b. There will be a special election specifically
conducted for the filling up of the vacant offices.
c. The Senate President shall submit to the Congress
a declaration of his disability, then a Senior Senator
will be the acting President.
d. The Speaker of the House shall act as President
until the President or VP shall have been elected and
qualified.

19. Noel Uban was nominated by President John Mar
Siuagan to the rank of naval captain in the Armed
Forces of the Philippines. His nomination has been
confirmed by the Commission on Appointments, and
his appointment (by President Siuagan) followed
thereafter. Noel Uban have accepted the nomination
with great pride and honor. The President
reconsidered his appointment after discovering that
Mr. Uban has a criminal record. The President
withdrew his appointment. Is this allowed?
a. Yes. This is a matter of presidential discretion,
arising from the power of appointment.
b. No. The President can no longer withdraw the
appointment because all the steps have already been
complied with.

c. Yes. The power to withdraw appointments is one of
the residual powers of the President.
d. No. once the appointee accepts, President can no
longer withdraw the appointment.
e. A & C
f. B & D
g. None of the above

20. Vincent is an alien visiting the Philippines. During
his visit, he was accused of killing a Filipino. Which of
the following actions are permitted by the
Constitution?
a. Imprison Vincent right away
b. Give him the chance to defend himself
c. Deport him back to his country
d. The government cannot do anything because he is
an alien.

21. Is a citizen also a national?
a. Yes, inasmuch as he also owes allegiance to a
State.
b. No, the two are not the same.

c. Yes, because like a nation a citizen exercises
political and civil rights.
d. No, not all citizens are nationals.

22. This Constitutional principle signifies that all
persons subject to legislation should be treated alike,
under like circumstances and conditions both in the
privileges conferred and liabilities imposed.
a. Due process of law
b. Equal protection of laws
c. Security in one‘s person, house, papers, and effects
d. National integrity

23. Pedro was born January 17, 1973, of Filipino
mother but a Swedish father. Is he still required to
elect his Philippine citizenship?
a. Yes. Since he was born on January 17, 1973, the
governing provision during that time requires that his
parents must both be Filipinos. Thus to effect his
Philippine citizenship, he must elect for it upon
reaching 18 years old.
b. No. The governing provision at the time of his birth
requires only that either his father or mother is a

Filipino. Thus, he is already a Filipino and electing his
Philippine citizenship is no longer necessary.
c. Yes because Art. 4, Sec. 1 (3) states that ―those
born on January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who
elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of
majority‖ are citizens of the Philippines. So if Pedro
wants to be a Filipino citizen he must elect for it.
d. No because he is already 38 years old.

24. It is a form of government in which the control of
national and local affairs is exercised by the central or
national government.
a. Republic b. Unitary c.
Federal d. Parliamentary

25. This government was established during the
American regime pursuant to an act of the United
States Congress on March 24, 1934, commonly
known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law.
a. Commonwealth Gov‘t b. Military
Gov‘t c. Civil Gov‘t d.
Republic

26. It refers to that body of rules and principles in
accordance with which the powers of sovereignty are
regularly exercised.
a. Statute b. Civil
Code c. Preamble d.
Constitution

27. Which among the following is not descriptive of
the Philippine Constitution?
a. Cumulative b. Rigid c.
Conventional d. Written

28. What‘s the difference between a Constitution and
a statute?
a. A Constitution is a legislation direct from the
people, while a state is a legislation from the people‘s
representatives.
b. A Constitution provides the details of the general
framework of the law and the government stated in
the statute.
c. The Statute is the fundamental law of the land to
which the Constitution and all other laws must
conform.
d. There is no difference because they are both laws.

29. This principle holds that no man is above the law,
so that every man, however high or low, is equal.
a. Rule of the majority b. Rule of Law c.
Democracy d. Constitution

30. Although the Preamble is not an essential part of
the Constitution, why is it advisable to have one?
a. It could be a source of private right enforceable by
the courts.
b. It sets down the origin and purposes of the
Constitution.
c. Aside from (b), it may serve as an aid in the
interpretation of the Constitution.
d. All of the above

31. What is the single biggest factor for national
solidarity?
a. The government envisioned in the Constitution
b. The Preamble and the different Statutes
promulgated by the Congress
c. The Democratic ideals of peace, love, freedom,
justice, & equality

d. All of the above

32. Which of the following explains the principle of
the separation of the Church and State?
a. No law shall be made respecting an establishment
of religion.
b. No public money or property shall ever be used for
any religious denomination.
c. The Church must not interfere with the affairs
exclusively for the State.
d. All of the above

33. What is meant by a bicameral legislature?
a. It means that the Congress is composed of two
House of Representatives.
b. It means that the Congress is composed of two
chambers: Senate and House of Representatives.
c. It means that the legislative power, the authority to
enact and promulgate laws, is vested in the Congress
of the Philippines.
d. All of the above

34. What is the difference between a Senator and a
Member of the House of Representatives?
a. A Senator is elected at large by qualified voters,
whereas a member of the House of Representatives is
elected in his district.
b. Although both are legislators, a senator is
concerned with the national interest of the people,
while a member of the House of Representatives is
concerned only with the regional interest of the
people.
c. A senator is trained to be the future leader of the
country, whereas a member of the House of
Representatives is not.
d. All of the above

35. Which of the following speaks of the Philippine
foreign policy?
a. It is one that preserves and enhances national and
economic security.
b. It guarantees the protection of the rights and
promotion of the welfare and interest of Filipino
overseas.
c. It is one that does not subordinate or subject to
nor dependent upon the support of another country.

d. Its objective is to establish friendly relations with
all countries of the world regardless of race, religion,
ideology and social system and to promote as much
beneficial relations with them particularly in economic
and trade activities.
e. It is the sole weapon of the Philippines for the
promotion of national interest in international affairs.
f. All of the above
g. C and D
h. C, D, and E

36. What is the extent of the right of State to
interfere with education of children?

a. Since the children are the property of the State
(Regalian Doctrine), it can by law compel the parents
to make their children accept interference with the
liberty of parent to direct the upbringing and
education of children under their control.
b. The State can reasonable regulate all schools, their
teachers and pupils.
c. The State can require that all children of proper
age attend school, that teachers shall be of good
moral character and patriotic disposition.

d. The State can oblige that certain studies plainly
essential to good citizenship must be taught, and that
nothing to be taught which is manifestly inimical to
public welfare.
e. While the natural and primary responsibility for
educating the child rests in the family, the State also
has a distinct interest in this matter since a proper
education – humanistic, vocational, moral, religious,
civic – is necessary for social well-being.
f. It is the right and duty of the State to see that the
obligations of the parents are fulfilled (through such
means as compulsory education laws.
g. The State may supply the essential educational
facilities which private initiative is unable to furnish.
h. All except A
i. B, C, D, E

37. It is principle that discourages government
engagement in particular business activities which can
be competently and efficiently undertaken by the
private sector unless the latter is timid or does not
want to enter into a specific industry or enterprise.
a. Principle of subsidiarity b. Principle
of subsidy

c. Principle of subsidiary d. Principle
of free enterprise
e. Principle of capitalism f. Principle
of free market

38. What is an indigenous cultural community?
a. It refers to those groups in our region which
possess and wish to develop their ethnic, religious, or
linguistic traditions or characteristics markedly
different from the rest of the world.
b. It refers to those dominant groups in our country
which possess and wish to improve their ethnic,
religious, or linguistic traditions or characteristics
similar the rest of the population.
c. It refers to those minority groups in other countries
which possess and wish to preserve ethnic, religious,
or linguistic traditions or characteristics markedly
different from the rest if the population.
d. It refers to those non-dominant groups in our
country which possess and wish to preserve ethnic,
religious, or linguistic traditions or characteristics
markedly different from the rest of the population.

39. It is a name given to the submission of a law or
part thereof passed by the national or local legislative

body to the voting citizens of a country for their
ratification or rejection.
a. Election b. Plebiscite c.
Referendum d. Initiative e. Recall

40. In this system or principle, the powers of the
government are divided into three distinct classes: the
legislative, the executive, and the judiciary.
a. Bicameralism b. Parliamentary
System c. Presidential System d.
Checks and Balances

41. Who among the following is a registered voter?
a. One who is eighteen years of age and can read and
write.
b. One who is at least 35 years of age on the day of
the election and is a resident of the Philippines for at
least 2 years prior the day of election.
c. one who has all the qualifications and none of the
disqualifications of a voter provided by law and who
has registered in the list of voters.
d. All of the above
e. B and C

f. All except A

42.When is the regular election of the Senators and
the Members of the House of Representatives held?
a. Every 4th Monday of July
b. 2nd Monday of May
c. 1st Sunday of June
d. None of the above

43. If there are 215 Members of the House of
Representatives, and 15 are abroad, what would
constitute the quorum?
a. 100 b. 101 c. 100.5 d.
102 e. 108

44. Which of the following is not allowed by the rules
on Congressional suspension?
a. Suspension for 1 month b. Indefinite
suspension c. Suspension for 1 day d. None of the
above

45. It is a bill affecting purely municipal concerns like
changing the name of a city.

a. Bill of municipal application
b. Bill authorizing change of name
c. Bill of local application
d. Private bill

II. ENUMERATION

1-4. Qualifications of voters
5-6. Congressional disqualifications
7-15. Steps in the passage of a bill

———————–END———————–

February 20, 2012 Posted by tamayaosbc | Politics
and Governance | Leave a Comment

Prelim Exam in Pol Gov
__B___ 1. What is Politics?
a. It is a systematic body of knowledge which for the
most part is theoretical, that deals with the
government and regulation, maintenance and

development, and defense and augmentation of the
state.
b. It is the way in which we understand and order our
social affairs, and acquire greater control over the
situation.
c. It is the science of power and manipulation.
d. It deals with the protection of the rights of its
citizens; safeguarding and enhancement their
immorality; and, harmony and peace in their
relations.
__B___ 2. What is Governance?
a. It is the manner of stirring a group of people or a
state.
b. governance is the complex process whereby some
sectors of the society wield power, and enact and
promulgate public policies which directly affect human
and institutional interactions, and economic and social
development.
c. It came from the Greek word gubernare which
means to stir.
d. All of the above
___D__ 3. What is meant by ideology in its
contemporary usage?

a. It refers to the very ideas themselves which are
meant to give structure and meaning to the human
world.
b. It refers to the study of ideas, from the Greek
words logos (study or science) and idea (knowledge
or idea).
c. Coined by Destutt de Tracy, ideology means
―science of ideas.‖
d. All of the above
__D___ 4. What is a Constitution?
a. Literally it means the putting in position of things,
or simply composition.
b. If understood then with respect to law, it means
the fundamental, organic laws that govern the
operation of a group of men or a state.
c. It is that body of rules and principles in accordance
with which the powers of sovereignty are regularly
exercised.
d. All of the above
__A/C___ 5. It is a belief where all citizens have equal
rights and privileges.
a. Egalitarianism b. Conservatism c.
Liberalism d. Naturalism

__A/C___ 6. Why did Aristotle say that man is a
political animal?
a. Because men naturally live in cities.
b. Because men, like other animals, live in herds.
c. Because it is part of men‘s instinct to live together.
d. Because it is in cities that men actualize their
animality.
__B___ 7. What does Locke mean by a ―Limited
Government‖?
a. The government has the right to impose rules and
confer rights to the people.
b. The power of the government is
constricted to its task of securing and nurturing the
rights of the people.
c. The judgment of the sovereign limits the
action of the government.
__A___ 8. What is the purpose of the social contract
for Thomas Hobbes?
a. To avoid the State of Nature and endeavor for
peace.
b. To preserve the inherent rights of men which are
not guaranteed in the state of nature.

c. To allow the alpha male to acquire legitimate
authority over the rest of the human community.
d. To destroy the absolute freedom of men.
__A___ 9. For him, the intention of the subjects in
mutually consenting to form a compact is the
protection of their rights.
a. John Locke b. Thomas
Hobbes c. Edmund Burke d.
Karl Marx
__B___ 10. He said that the psychological
foundations of prudence and civilization are fear of
death and the need for security.
a. Adam Smith b. Thomas Hobbes
c. John Stuart Mill d. Karl Marx
__B___ 11. Which of the following expresses the
conservative ideology?
a. The reliance on the human ability to adapt and
change
b. The reliance on the wisdom of experience
c. The egalitarian principle of human equality
d. The belief on the inevitability of a classless society
__A___ 12. Which of the following expresses the
Communist ideology?

a. The belief in the dialectical movement of history
towards a classless society
b. The necessity of a peaceful revolution to change
the system of exploitation
c. Respect on private ownership
d. All of the above
__B___ 13. Is our today‘s notion of politics similar to
that of Aristotle‘s?
a. Yes, because like Aristotle, we believe that politics
is a human endeavor that does not have anything to
do with ethics.
b. No, because while our notion of politics is detached
from ethics, Aristotelian politics is intimately
intertwined with ethics.
c. Yes, because like in the classical Aristotelian
political theory, our notion of politics today involves
the mutual dependency of laborers or slaves and their
masters.
d. No, because unlike Aristotelian politics which
supports the value of women, today‘s politics is
almost always about men only.
__A___ 14.Which of the following does not speak of
Aristotelian political theory?
a. Politics is a theoretical science.

b. Politics deals primarily with the polis or city.
c. Politics should manifest the hierarchy of human life.
d. The end of politics is the same as that of ethics –
good life or happiness.
__D___ 15. Why is it that for Aristotle, politics and
ethics are intimately intertwined?
a. Because a virtuous life is available only to those
immersed in politics.
b. Because ethics and politics have the same end –
happiness or the good life.
c. Because to be ethical and virtuous, one must
engage in politics, and in being political, one must
engender a virtuous character.
d. All of the above.
__A___ 16. What did John Locke say about human
nature?
a. Man is naturally good and reasonable in his
dealings with other men.
b. Man by nature is evil.
c. Men become free, equal, and independent through
a government.

__A___ 17. What is possessed by the government if it
can successfully assert its claim to rule?
a. Legitimacy b. Order c.
Sovereignty d. Authority
__C___ 18. It is a distinct group of people who share
a common background including any or all of the
following: geographic location, history, racial or ethnic
characteristics, religion, language, culture, and belief
in common political ideas.
a. State b.
Citizens c. Nation d.
Population
__B___ 19. It is the complex process whereby some
sectors of the society wield power, and enact and
promulgate public policies which directly affect human
and institutional interactions, and economic and social
development.
a. Government b.
Governance c. Good Governance d. All of
the above
__B____20. What is social justice?
a. Giving equal opportunity to all, rich and poor alike.
b. Giving preferential attention to the less fortunate.
c. Eradicating poverty through the abolition of private
property

d. Getting some from the rich and giving the same to
the poor.
21-40. Identify which of the political
paradigms and ideologies embody the given
belief.
___B___21. ―Natural rights of individuals and a
limited government based on consent must be
upheld, and that private ownership of the means of
production and distribution must be patronized.‖
a. Political Right b. Political Center c.
Political Left d. Revolutionary Politics
___B___22. ―Social conflict is recognized but the
resolution of this malaise is not through revolution but
through compromise and accommodation.‖
___A___23. ―The society and its traditions, customs
and authority are sacrosanct and inviolable.‖
___B___24. Freedom of expression, religious worship
and assembly are advocated so long as those political
acts do not go beyond established laws.

___C___25. ―Equalitarianism in the economic sense,
for the elimination of the extremes of wealth and
property.‖
___B___26. ―The state is the supreme authority so
that the party that controls it is the only vehivle
through which the fascist program is implemented,
oppositions suppressed, constitutional government
dismantled, and dissident cultures and races
eliminated.‖
a. Conservatism b. Authoritarianism
c. Dictatorship d. Liberalism
___C___27. ―Significant and rapid social and political
change is necessary.‖
___A___28. ―Society is a living organism.‖
___B___29. ―Debates should be encouraged, dissent
tolerated, but within the legal framework.‖

___A___30. ―Repression of contrary ideology is
justified, and violence is glorified, so long as these
acts are for the exaltation of the state over the
individuals.‖
___A___31. ―Citizens must enjoy formal equality
before the law.‖
a. Liberal Democracy b. Non-liberal
Democracy c. Nationalist Democracy d. All of
the above
___C___32. ―Economic independence and right of
self-determination must be asserted.‖
a. Liberal Democracy b. Non-liberal
Democracy c. Nationalist Democracy d. All of
the above
___D___33. ―The progress of history is but the
progress of the mode of production. History is
economically determined and that progress is leading
to the eradication of private property and social
classes.‖
a. Socialism b. Fascism c.
Conservatism d. Communism
___D___34. ―An individual by himself is powerless
before the state apparatus, but with a group
representing him and espousing his cause, he can

stand firm politically, thereby neutralizing the power
of government which tries to ride roughshod over his
rights.‖
a. Individualism b. Socialism c.
Centrism d. Pluralism
___D___35. ―Society is an arena of contradiction
between the owners and non-owners of the means of
life, the latter being exploited and oppressed by the
former.‖
a. Democracy b. Fascism c.
___B___36. ―The government exercises unlimited
power over virtually all aspects of social, economic,
political, and cultural life… all power is allocated to an
elite group.‖
___C___37. ―Things must be kept the way they are
otherwise what some people would want to
perpetuate might be put in jeopardy.. status quo
must be defended and radical change must be
frowned upon.‖

___C___38. ―Governance and decision-making should
be given to the so-called natural leaders, that is, to
men and women of talent, high birth, and property,
for they have greater stake in the welfare and
fortunes of the country rather than to the masses or
propertyless class.‖
___B___39. ―Individualism and pluralism, and other
liberal philosophies which granted so many rights and
liberties only divided the nations.‖
___C___40. ―The moral core contains an affirmation
of basic values and rights attributable to the nature of
human being – freedom, dignity, and life –
subordinating everything else to their
implementation.‖
a. Socialism b. Conservatism c.
Liberalism d. Pluralism
41-50. Random questions
___D___41. Which of the following is not a pressing
political issue?
a. population explosion b. massive
poverty and unemployment

c. environmental degradation d. spiritual
salvation
___A___42. Ideology is not predicated on what
theoretical and philosophical assumptions?
a. Political Theology b. Philosophy of man
c. Theory of Society d. Philosophy of truth
___B___43. It is that component of ideology that
provides the guide to action, or spells out ―what is to
be done.‖
a. Philosophy b.
Program c. Propaganda
d. Politics
___B___44. This is one of the functions of an
ideology that refers to how the political regime and its
authority are accepted by the community, to how its
laws are complied with, and to how its policies are
carried out.
a. Mobilization b.
Legitimation c. Recognition
d. Manipulation
___C___45. Another function of ideology that means
the conscious and deliberate formulation of
proposition with which to incite people to struggle for
ends which are perceived only by those in power or
attempting to get political power.

a. Legitimation b.
Mobilization c. Manipulation d.
Association
___B___46. According to some authors, mobilization
implies three processes. Which of the following is not
included?
a. the recruitment of political militants who will
spearhead the activities of a political party or social
movement
b. the invention of myths and superstitions, utopias
and other illusions, for the success in engaging the
people
c. the reawakening of some former members or
groups that have become dormant
d. the politicization of previously apolitical elements
___B___47. Of the proponents of the social contract
theory, who said that the State was agreed upon to
ensure man‘s natural rights to life, liberty and
property, which are in constant jeopardy under the
state of nature.
a. Thomas Hobbes b. John
Locke c. Jean Jacques Rousseau d.
Edmund Burke
___C___48. This theory holds that the state was
formed through individuals who used cunning and

military prowess in consolidating and governing vast
domains.
a. Divine Right Theory b. Social Contract
Theory c. Force Theory d. Instinct Theory
___B___49. Who among the following philosophers
would contradict the Instinct Theory?
a. Aristotle b. Hobbes c. St.
Thomas Aquinas d. None of the above
___B___50. Who among the following would go
against the idea that the state is an instrument of
coercion and repression?
a. Vladimir Lenin b. Jean Jacques Rousseau
c. Karl Marx d. Friedrich Engels
51-60. Tell whether the following statements
are true or false. If it is true, then write A; if
false, write B.
A51. The vision of peace entail ―waging war‖ against
economic, social and political structures that cause
people to bear arms and which breed the suffering
and oppression and deprivation of people.
A52. Karl Marx said that social justice does not simply
consists in implementing certain social programs such
as housing, social services, etc., though by
themselves these are laudable, but more
fundamentally in addressing the specifically social

aspect of the problem which has to do with structures
and processes.
B53. For purpose of ensuring the development and
satisfaction of the people‘s material and cultural
needs, nation must establish relationship of
dependence and cooperation with one another on the
basis of mutual respect, peace and equality.
B54. All governments are divided into three co-equal
branches, each is supreme in their areas of
competence.
B55. The legislative department is the law-
implementing agency of the government.
A56. Cabinet members are alter-egos of the Chief
Executive.
A57. Some instances of applying the principles of
checks and balances are when the Chief Executive
use his veto power to reject legislation measures and
when the Judiciary render a legislation
unconstitutional.
B58. The legislative body may be of three kinds:
Unicameral, Bicameral or Tricameral.
A59. By virtue of their being the law-makers of the
land, the legislators are expected to be paragons of
intellectual acumen, emotional maturity and moral
integrity.

A60. The general function of the judiciary is to apply
the law with as much certainty and uniformity to
certain specified cases.

December 16, 2011 Posted by tamayaosbc | Politics and Governance | Leave a
Comment

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Business, Entrepreneurship and
Accountancy
Andrews Campus
Syllabus in
POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE WITH PHILIPPINE
CONSTITUTION
1. COURSE IDENTIFICATION
1. Course Code: Soc Sci 12
2. Course Title: Politics and
Governance with Philippine Constitution
3. Course Description: This is an
introductory course in the Social Sciences, particularly
in Political Science, which deals with the study of (a)
basic political concepts, (b) government and
governance, (c) the Philippine Constitution, and (d)
generally, the persons, structures and processes
involved in the operation of the political system, with
special focus on the Philippine context. The 1987

Constitution is used as the basic framework for
analysis.
1. Course Objectives: At the end of the semester,
the students should be able to:
A. Understand the basic structure and processes of
politics and governance;
B. Understand basic political theories and Ideologies;
C. Critically examine the Philippines‘ own political
structure and contemporary issues and problems
relevant to it.
D. Understand the basic provisions of the 1987
Constitution;
E. Identify and internalize citizen‘s political rights and
responsibilities to develop their sense of nationalism
and love of country.
1. Course Credit: 54 hours/3 units
2. Course Requirements:
Long Examinations
(Prelim, Midterm and Finals
50%
Recitation and
Quizzes
40%

Others (Assignments/
Attendance)
10%

TOTAL
100%

==========
1. UNIVERSITY PHILOSOPHY
The university serves the individual by providing the
student with nurturing environment for optimal
human flourishing. It serves the community by
offering programs responsive to individual and social
needs.
UNIVERSITY VISION
The Cagayan State University shall be recognized by
the entire region and the nation as a credible and
distinguished center of higher education in Northern
Luzon. It shall likewise establish its own niche in the
global academic community. It shall endeavor to
improve from its previous best, showing that it enjoys
the leading edge in all that pertains to education.
UNIVERSITY MISSION

The Cagayan State University shall make quality
education and formation towards the different
professions accessible to all who may come to it, and
who measure up to its standards. It shall be an
academic community given to instruction, research
and extension. It shall not in any way discriminate on
bases unrelated to education.

1. COURSE CONTENT

Topic Specific Strategies/Activities
Objectives

I. Classroom At the end of Class Discussion
Orientation the session,
students are
1. Getting to know expected to:
each other
2. Expectation Get
Setting acquainted
3. House Rules with the
4. Course Overview teacher and
5. Use of the their co-
Syllabus students and

6. Generalizations, be able to
Inquiries and express their
valuing expectations
on the
subject, on
their teacher
and on their
classmates;
Familiarize
themselves
with the
coverage and
requirements
of the
subject and
also with
classroom
rules;
Understand
the
importance
of the course
syllabus;
Relate the
importance
of the
subject to
the school‘s

vision-
mission and
philosophy.

II. POLITICS AND At the end of the
GOVERNANCE unit, the student
should be able to:
1. Basic Concepts:
1.1 Definition of
Politics, State,
Government,
Governance, and
Constitution
1.2 Approaches
and Theories to
studying politics
and governance
1. Classical Political
Theories
2.1 Greek Political
Philosophy
2.2 Machiavelli:
The Prince
2.3 Hobbes: The
Leviathan

2.4 Locke & Mill:
Limited
Government
2.5 Marx & Engels:
Communism
1. Overview of
Forms and
Structures of
Government
3.1 Monarchy
3.2. Aristocracy
3.3 Democracy
3.4 Principles of
Checks and
Balances
3.5 Separation of
Powers
1. Socio, Economic
and Political
Ideologies
4.1 Liberalism
4.2 Conservatism

4.3 Socialism
4.4 Fascism
1. Understanding
Politics in the
Philippine Context
5.1 State formation
in the Philippines
5.2 Politics before
and after Martial
Law

1. Know and understand the meaning of, and theories
about, politics, state, government, governance and
constitution;
2. Identify and differentiate the different forms of
government;
3. Understand and analyze the different ideologies;
and
4. Apply the different concepts in understanding
Philippine politics.
Lecture/Group Discussion
Case analysis
Practical application
Research

Hand-out
Books
Internet researches
Transparencies
PowerPoint Presentation
Seatwork Recitation
Quizzes
Assignments
Examinations
28 hours
III. THE 1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

1. Concept of Constitution
1.1 Meaning of Constitution
1.2 Kinds of Constitution
1.3 Constitution of the Rep. of Philippines
2. Principles and State Policies
2.1 Philippines as a Democratic, Republican State
2.1 Separation of Church and State
2.3 Independent Foreign Relations

2.4 Roles of the different sectors of the society in
nation-building
3. Government Institutions and Processes
3.1 The Legislature and the Legislative Process
3.2 The Executive and the Executive Process
3.3 The Judiciary and the judicial processes
3.4 Local Government Units
3.5 Military role in Philippine Politics
3.6 Philippine foreign relations
4. Representation and Participation Politics
4.1 Elections
4.2 Parties and Party System
5. Civil Society and Social Movement
5.1 The Roles of Church and Religion
5.2 Indigenous peoples, women, and the environment
5.3 The Philippine Media
5.4 Pursuit for Social Justice
6. The Bill of Rights (Art.III)
6.1 Concept of Bill of Rights
6.2 Due Process of Law; Equal Protection

6.3 Right against unreasonable searches and seizures
6.4 Right of privacy
6.5 Freedom of Speech, of Expression, and of the
Press
6.6 Freedom of Religion
6.7 Liberty of Abode and Travel
6.8 Right to Information on matters of public concern
6.9 Right to form associations
6.10 Inherent Powers of the Government
6.11 Non-impairment of Contract
6.12 Rights of the accused
6.13 Rights of person under investigation
6.14 Right to bail
6.15 Right to due process of law in criminal cases
6.16 Writ of Habeas Corpus
6.17 Right to speedy disposition of cases
6.18 Right against self-incrimination
6.19 Right against excessive fines and inhuman
punishments
6.20 Right against double jeopardy
At the end of the unit, the student should be able to

1. Define the meaning of Constitution;
2. Understand the principles and state policies;
3. Analyze the Government institutions and processes;
4. Succinctly discuss representation and participation
politics;
5. Know the role of the civil society; and
6. Be aware of the constitutional rights, and know
when such rights are enforceable.
Lecture/Group Discussion
Case analysis
Practical application
Research
Hand-out
Books
Internet researches
Transparencies
PowerPoint Presentation
Seatwork Recitation
Quizzes
Assignments
Examinations
22 hours

References:
Hector De Leon, Textbook on Philippine Constitution
Jose Nolledo, The Philippine Constitution
Cruz, Isagani. Constitutional Law/ Political Law,
Central Publishing Co., 1998.
Amable Tuibeo, Politics and Governance
Prepared
by:
Approved by:
Noted by:
MICHAEL JHON M. TAMAYAO,
MPhil WINSTON J. APALISOC,
CPA, MBA EMERITA P. GERON, CPA,
MBA
Professor
Dept. Chair –
Accountancy College
Dean
PLACIDO D. TUDDAO, CPA, MBA
Dept. Chair- Bus. Adm.

November 8, 2011 Posted by tamayaosbc | Politics and
Governance, Uncategorized | Leave a Comment

Political and Economic Ideologies
Michael Jhon M. Tamayao, M.Phil.

I.
Before we embark into the intricacies of our subject,
―Political and Economic Ideologies,‖ it is wise to
define first the basic terms and concepts. This is in
order to avoid ambiguity and vagueness later when
we discuss the various political concepts and theories.
Although the definitions are not exhaustive, as these
terms will be our object of study for the entire
seminar, they will nevertheless be helpful in
commencing our discussion of the subject.

What is Politics? The word ―politics‖ is derived from
the Greek word ―polis‖ which means ―city,‖ which
during the Greek period, and as it is today, refers to a
sovereign state.[1] Basing on its etymology, politics
(and other related words, such as politic, political,
politician, and polity) has something to do with the
affairs of the state.
Politics is the science of government. As a science, it
is a systematic body of knowledge (for the most part,
practical) that deals with the government and

regulation, maintenance and development, and
defense and augmentation of the state. It also deals
with the protection of the rights of its citizens;
safeguarding and enhancement their morals; and,
harmony and peace in their relations. Thus politics is
the way in which we understand and order our social
affairs, and acquire greater control over the
situation.[2]
What is Economics? Economics is derived from the
Greek word ―oikonomia‖ which means management
of household. Economics is the science that treats of
the production, distribution, conservation, and
consumption of wealth.
What is an Ideology? The word ―ideology‖ is derived
from the two Greek words, idea, which means idea,
and logos, which means science. The term therefore
literally means ―science of ideas.‖ The word was first
coined by Destutt de Tracy, a French philosopher and
writer.
In its contemporary usage, ideology refers to the very
ideas themselves which are meant to give structure
and meaning to the human world. As such, every
ideology gives direction to our political and social
activities; it is the perspective through which
wepicture and likewise control reality and, by
extension, the people. It is a comprehensive set of

beliefs and attitudes about social and economic
institutions and processes.[3]

Politics and economics are intimately entwined. The
primary issues in politics are about economics, and
the most significant economic problems are settled
through politics. The concept of the best form of
government, the promotion of social justice,
theeradication of poverty, and who should exercise
power are timeless political issues, which can be
addressed only with respect to the polity‘s economic
system. The way outputs are produced, the definition
of what constitutes output, what is produced, andwho
decides development policy are significant economic
problems, which are settled as much in the political
arena as in production.[4] Politics happens within the
economic structures. Thus, to understand politics, it
must be done in the light of an economic system, and
to understand economics, it must be done in the light
of a political system.
Because they are comprehensive systems of beliefs
and attitudes, ideologies are almost always about
politics, economics, and social relationships.
Ideologies are always political and economic, for that
by which we order and give structure to our political
and economic affairs is through an ideological
framework. It is now clear and discernible how the

terms lead to each other, and why the definitions we
just did, although separately done, must eventually
lead to a more unified discussion.

There are as many ideologies as there are people
believing in them. For our own purposes and due to
time constraint, this paper will discuss only the three
dominant ideologies, namely liberalism, conservatism,
and socialism. Liberalism will be discussed in the light
of the political philosophies of the classical liberal
theoreticians, John Stuart Mill, Thomas Hobbes, John
Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Adam Smith.
Conservatism, which is a reaction to the revolutionist
ideals, will center on the political theory of Edmund
Burke. And our discussion of socialism will be limited
to communism. Communism will be discussed with
reference only toThe Communist Manifesto of Marx
and Engels.[5]

II.
An ideology is presumably rational because it tries to
make sense of reality. The three dominant ideologies
of conservatism, liberalism, and socialism (which will
be discussed in this seminar) are recognized for their
rational, logical style, which probably helps account
for their dominance.[6] However, ideologies,
especially those that rely greatly on faith and belief,
likewise have an element of irrationality. This,
nonetheless, proves to be a useful component,
because, although an idea is contrary to common
sense, a true follower accepts it; this becomes an
avenue for an unwavering loyalty to the system and
for authentic unity amongst members. [7]
Ideologies are normative rather than just explanatory
in approach. Thus, what shall be discussed below are
all guidelines, more than mere theoretical
descriptions, for societal organization and function.

Liberalism
By definition, liberalism is the belief in the importance
of liberty and the rejection of arbitrary authority. But
because people have different views on the concept
of liberty, liberalism is rather ambiguous.[8] Various

liberal schools sprouted; among the most noteworthy
are the Lockean liberalism and democratic liberalism,
both of which contributed to the ideology of the
French Revolution.[9] Liberalism finds its roots in the
humanist affirmation of human excellence and
individual responsibility, best associated
with Renassaince. With the rise of individualism, man
could no longer be regarded as having a fixed place in
a divinely ordained world. Liberals picture life as a
race, a restless competition; one which have casted
away the fetters of tradition and religion, and
replaced them with a new form of social control: the
state that is increasingly executive.
Because of numerous references to the concept, it
becomes necessary to go back to the theoretical
landmarks of liberalism. Liberalism finds its most
famous concoction in the classical theories of John
Stuart Mill, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-
Jacques Rousseau, for its politico-philosophical
aspect; and in the theory of Adam Smith for its
economic aspect.
John Stuart Mill. Traditional liberalism started from
Mill‘s concept of negative freedom, that is, freedom
from constraints, particularly from that of the State.
He was careful though not to push this notion into
anarchist extremes. He also believed in democratic
government, but he was profoundly worried about the
tendency of this government to suppress individuality

and override minorities.[10] Hence, his central
concern in his socio-political writings was to show the
importance of personal freedom and the development
of strong individual character and to devise ways in
encouraging their growth.[11]
Although he thought it was the most likely of his
works to be of enduring value, On Liberty (1859) is
considered one of the great landmarks of classical
liberalism. In it, Mill tackles the perennial issue: what
powers should society have over individuals?[12] He
maintained the view that the individual is sovereign
over his own body and mind; that ―the sole end for
which mankind are warranted, individually or
collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of
any of their number, is self-protection.‖
Mill equated ―individuality‖ with continued effort of
self-development. Individual freedom is freedom from
constraints. The State must therefore not suppress
individual differences and the development of genuine
minority opinion. Democracy, with its controlling
public opinion, must not be an avenue for tyranny.
Instead, it must develop personalities strong enough
to resist public opinion and immediate yielding to it.
Mill‘s strong emphasis on this point showed his fear of
democratic tyranny more than aristocratic tyranny.
It is important to note that Mill, as a liberal, purported
that ―representative government‖ is the best form of

government. More than any other form of
government, it encourages the growth and
development of individuality. It engages the
individuals by giving them direct participation in the
process of governing. Representative government
thereby makes them active, intelligent, well rounded,
and sensitive but impersonal to public issues. Mill was
careful, however, in promoting a democracy that was
represented by the minorities as well as majorities.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Along the lines of his
pessimistic account of human nature, Thomas Hobbes
constructed his socio-political philosophy.[13] He
began his liberal theory with the idea that the
―natural state‖ of man is a state of war; that under
the state of nature ―man is a wolf to another man.‖
Man competes for his basic needs, often violently,
and, as such, he is in constant fear of violence (or
death) from another man. To ensure therefore his
personal safety, he challenges others and fights out
of fear, or establishes his reputation as a defense
from others.
Hobbes stated that the sovereign or political
authorities are not natural to man. It is true that
some are stronger and wiser than others, but each
man has the entrenched capacity to kill another.
Since even the strongest needs sleep, the weakest
can take that opportunity to slit the former‘s throat. It
was completely clear for Hobbes that there is no

natural right for anyone to rule. In addition, Hobbes
spoke of man‘s ―right of nature.‖ This is the right to
self-preservation at all cost. From this primary right
comes the right to judge what will ensure our
existence. Under the state of nature, judgments are
very drastic; the possibility of trusting a third party in
the resolution of a problem is unlikely to happen. No
one in such state can serve as a judge for another
because of the radical, mutual distrust among men.
Man must, therefore, be a judge of his own cause. It
is true that we have varied judgments about things,
but what is right ―for me,‖ regardless of what you
think, is and will always be right ―for me.‖ All moral
judgments are limited to individual judgments and
never raised to general principles. This makes moral
judgments in the state of nature ―amoral.‖ Thus the
over-all picture in the state of nature is that it is the
interaction of selfish and amoral human beings.
The state of nature is an unfavorable situation for
man. He is in constant threat of a violent death. He
therefore ought to avoid it and endeavor for peace.
As the core of Hobbes‘ teachings about the laws of
nature, man must treat his fellow the way he wants
others treat him. In order to implement this, man
must enter into a social contract whereby he
surrenders his right of nature to the sovereign power
and drastically limit this right only to right to defend
his self from immediate threat. Only the sovereign

ruler retains his right of nature because all judgments
about the affairs of the community are delegated to
him. He decides the norms of action and the rules of
property. He judges disputes and resolves them.
Man‘s fear of death and the need for security are both
the psychological foundations of prudence and
civilization. The horrors of the state of nature can
only be overcome through the institution of a
government. Man‘s voluntary entrance into the social
contract marks the transition from state of nature to
civil society. In the civil society, only the sovereign
authority is the true judge.
John Locke (1632–1704). In his work The Second
Treatise of Government, John Locke said, ―Men… by
nature are all free, equal, and independent… The only
way whereby anyone can strip himself of his natural
liberty and put on the bonds of civil society is by
agreeing with other men to join and to unite into a
community for their comfortable, safe, and peaceable
living amongst another, in a secure enjoyment of
their properties and a greater security against any
that are not of it.‖ Locke in here gives us a picture of
man‘s natural state and the condition by which man
enters a civil society. In the state of nature, man has
absolute freedom of choice. Contrary to Hobbes‘
pessimistic assertion, Locke firmly states that man is
naturally good and reasonable in his dealings with
other men. Even before man‘s entrance into a

government, reason and conscience exert an
influence to man‘s judgments. Using reason, man
knows that he ought not to harm another in his life,
health, liberty, or property. Hence, for Locke,
although it is true that in the state of nature, one is a
judge to his own cause, it is not the case that man
wages war against all. But to avoid inconveniences in
his interaction with other men, he must enter into a
compact which limits his freedom as per prescribed by
the norms of that compact. Unlike Hobbes, however,
Locke says that the sovereign ruler is accountable to
his subjects, and the government‘s main goal is to
preserve, nurture, and protect the rights of its
citizens.[14]
Locke further states that ―the chief and the great
end… of men‘s uniting into commonwealths and
putting themselves under government is the
preservation of their property.‖[15] He proposes
that, by uniting and putting themselves under a
government, men preserve their rights. The
government or state is a necessary institution,
ensuring order and law at home, defense against
foreign powers, and security of possessions – the
three principles summarized as ―life, liberty, and
property.‖ As a consequence their lives, as compared
to the state of nature, become more comfortable and
peaceful.

Locke further says, contrary to the idea of Hobbes,
that the sovereign ruler is not exempted from the
norms of the government – a sovereign ruler is still
accountable for all his action. The power of the
sovereign is limited to the protection and preservation
of the natural rights of the people. Thus, if the
government fails to protect man‘s basic rights, i.e.,
rights of life, liberty, and property, then the people
could resort to a justified rebellion. This is the idea of
a ―limited government.‖ The power of the
government is constricted to its task of securing and
nurturing the rights of the people. Anything beyond
this duty is a sign of an abuse of power.
Furthermore, Locke justifies the right to property (as
a product of labor) by citing it as a necessary means
for sustaining our lives. Before the emergence of civil
societies, men toil the soils, which are not their own,
in order to meet their needs. Their labor, however,
transforms these publicly owned things in the state of
nature into privately owned properties. Nonetheless,
there is a limit to the amount of accumulated
properties. According to Locke, it must just be enough
to meet our needs, so that nothing is spoiled. The
right to property is a natural right of man. This
natural right is secured through a government.
Unlike Hobbes, Locke believes that the mutual
consent of men to form a social contract does not
result to an absolute sovereignty. For him, the

intention of the subjects in mutually consenting to
form a compact is the protection of their rights. This
is effectively carried out by dividing the government
into three powers, which are the legislative,
executive, and the judicial, and by majority
representation in the legislature. Moreover, it is not
the sovereign that confers the rights to his citizens, as
Hobbes believes, but these rights are naturally owned
by the citizens, and must therefore be retained and
respected by the sovereign. These rights are deduced
from man‘s nature, and they are not products of a
sovereign‘s freedom of choice.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Rousseau
was particularly opposed to the artificialities of
contemporary societies, and stressed the importance
of the human being‘s natural development. Man‘s
evolution from the primitive societies to the present is
a fall from happiness to misery. This road to perdition
is irreversible; thus, man must preserve, argued
Rousseau, the simplicity and innocence of the less
politicized societies and protect them from further
corruption. Moreover, he contended that even though
man is free, man is everywhere chained by his
artificial needs. As culture appears to attain an ever
increasing sophistication, genuine human
relationships slowly disappear. Man is lost and
alienated from his real self. To be free again, people

must be trained to be good, not merely powerful, by
teaching them what human relations ought to be. In
his works Emile and The Social Contract, Rousseau
was determined to improve the conditions of man
through his theories on politics and education. As a
liberal, his main thrust was to teach the art of living,
of providing the fundamental principles that underlie
the whole of man‘s development from infancy to
maturity.[16] For him, a ―truly free man‖ was one
with a ―well-regulated freedom‖ developed through
sound education. It must be noted though that
Rousseau‘s emphasis on individualist education, as in
the case of Emile, in no way excluded the idea that
true education must eventually be for the society.
Rousseau, like Locke, was convinced that man by
nature is good, but his goodness has been corrupted
by the maladies of modern societies. Men enter into a
social contract because of the obstacles to their
preservation in the state of nature. But in entering
into such a contract, they lose their freedom. Hence,
Rousseau sought for a form of social contract or
―association which will defend the person and goods
of each member with the collective force of all, and
under which each individual, while uniting himself
with the others, obeys no one but himself, and
remains as free as before.‖[17]
Rousseau envisioned a society whose sovereign was
the people themselves. All parties to this social

contract are collectively named ―people‖, who call
themselves ―citizens,‖ in so far as they participate in
the exercise of sovereign power, and ―subjects,‖ in so
far as they put themselves under the laws of the
state.[18] The ―general will‖ of the people that is
always rightful and always tends to the public good,
replaces the individual will, which though not corrupt,
is often led astray. In an enlightened republic, which
Rousseau considered the ideal type of state, people
will experience the highest form of freedom, namely,
that of living under laws freely chosen and of their
own making.[19] The success of this form of
government hinges on a good education.

Adam Smith (1723-1790). The economic aspect of
liberalism finds its classical expression in Smith‘s
account of ―free market economics.‖ He was
instrumental in bringing conceptual clarity to the
chaotic European market and in enlightening Europe
for the first time of its economic system. In his
work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth
of Nations, Smith expounds how the free market is
guided by what he calls ―invisible hands.‖
Smith argues that every individual continually exerts
himself to find the most advantageous employment of
capital that is for him in the production and sale of
goods that satisfy the greatest needs of the people.

Although a capitalist is motivated to act through ―self-
interest‖, he is bound to satisfy these needs of the
people.[20] By intending his own gain, he
contributes to the general welfare: ―by pursuing his
own interest, [the individual] frequently promotes
that of the society more effectually than when he
intends to promote it.‖[21] The capitalist is led by an
―invisible hand‖ to promote an end which is outside
his intention.
Smith is known to be a supporter of laissez-
faire[22] capitalism. With the belief that individual
self-interest is guided by the market‘s invisible hand,
Smith strongly opposed government intervention into
business affairs. Minimum wage laws, trade
restrictions, and product regulation are considered
detrimental to the country‘s economic health.
Capitalists support this laissez-fairepolicy of Smith,
although they often twist his words to justify
mistreatment of workers. However, Smith is wary of
the formation of monopolies. Capitalism is good
because of competition which encourages economic
growth and it benefits the members of the society;
but collusion among groups of capitalists chains the
invisible hand of the market from performing its task.

From the foregoing discussions, it could be surmised
that the liberals believe in the capacity of all

individuals to live satisfactory and productive lives, for
all are capable of reason and rational action. But
because people are often caught in a difficult
situation, the government must ensure that everyone
is given the opportunity to achieve the best possible
life and to fulfill his or her individual
potential.[23] The Philippine Constitution, as well as
the CSU philosophy, is founded on this liberal
concept.

Conservatism: Burke and Anti-revolution
With the belief that the wisdom of the past is more
likely to be right than the fleeting trend of the
moment, the conservative believes that the present
political system or that which has been passed on to
us by past generations must be conserved. If we wish
to change or improve the existing political system, it
must be based on the components of the past
systems.
In the Reflections on the Revolution in France,
Edmund Burke (1729-1797), who is considered the
articulate spokesman and intellectual apogee of
conservatism, attacked egalitarian advocacies on
absolute liberty, equality, and democracy, as well as
criticized abstract theories and the political principles
on change by revolution. He emphasized with
eloquent forcefulness the complexity of both man and

nature, the wisdom embodied in institutions (the
church, the state, and private property) and in
traditions. He assailed the rationalist or idealist
approach in understanding the political phenomena,
saying that such approach is of limited value because
it has neglected human passion, prejudice and habit;
reason, in itself, cannot explain and penetrate the
essential mystery of man and society, much more
with the universe. For him, presumption and
prejudice are rather more valuable basis than reason
for the operation of government. Society was not a
conscious creation of man, for men were molded and
born subject to established society.[24]
Revolution, which represents a complete break with
the past and abandonment of tradition, fills the heart
of a conservative with disgust and horror. The
fabrication of a new government entails not only the
destruction of sound principles of political action but
also the squander of the guidance of nature. Nature is
for Burke wisdom which needs no reflection; nature is
itself its own reason. State policies and our political
system must therefore be placed in just
correspondence and symmetry with nature, with the
world. By conforming to nature in our artificial
institutions, and by calling in the aid of her unerring
and powerful instincts, we fortify the fallible and
feeble contrivances of our reason.

In Reflections, Burke elaborates further that ―the
science of constructing a commonwealth, or
renovating it, is, like every other experimental
science, not to be taught a priori. Nor is it a short
experience that can instruct us in that practical
science… It is with infinite edifice, which has
answered in any tolerable degree for ages the
common purposes of society, or on building it up
again, without having models and patterns of
approved utility before his eyes…‖[25]
Burke said that some are born into ―a natural
aristocracy.‖[26] From this definitely nonegalitarian
point of view, a conservative believes that individuals
are not of equal value to society; some are born to
lead, to whom others not fit to rule owe allegiance.
The circumstances of their births give them the
necessary abilities and insights; these entitles them to
do the leading, guiding, and governing‖ part of
humanity, a right or privilege not present to others.
Deeply supporting the concept of ―birthright,‖ Burke
further states that nature not only teaches us to
revere individual men on account of their age, but
also on account of those from whom they have
descended. ―Levellers,‖ who only pervert the natural
order of things, think they are combating prejudice,
but they are combating nature. Some are naturally to
be accorded higher descriptions than others. Thus,
with his famous polemic style, Burke writes: ―The

occupation of a hair dresser, or of a working tallow
chandler, cannot be a matter of honor to any person
– to say nothing of a number of other servile
employments. Such descriptions of men ought not to
suffer oppression from the state; but the state suffers
oppression, if such as they, either individually or
collectively, are permitted to rule.‖[27]
Conservatives are loyal to their church, their king, and
their country. Their respect for their past makes it
natural for them to be deeply religious and
nationalistic. Religion is, for a conservative, the basis
of civil society, and the source of all good and
comfort.[28] Man by nature is a religious animal,
and, as such, religion is his first prejudice. It is not
that it is a prejudice non-constitutive of reason, but
involving it rather in profound and extensive wisdom.
Atheism, on the other hand, is not only against
reason, it is also against human instincts. All states
take ground on the different religious systems, and
their government officials, who are consecrated by
God Himself, stand in high and worthy notions of their
functions and destinations. To the conservatives, a
religion connected with the state is necessary, for in
the performance of a political duty, man is to account
for his conduct in that trust to the ―one great Master,
Author, and Founder of society.‖
Moreover, conservatives may establish ties with other
countries with similar beliefs, but they are on a

constant guard of their own system against enemy
states. These ties are mutual, because as they give
aid and comfort to their allies, their allies are
thwarted from becoming the friends of their
enemies.[29]
Burke affirms the liberal proposition that the society is
a contract. However, such contract is for him to be
―looked on with other reverence‖ because it ―is a
partnership in all science; a partnership in all art; a
partnership in every virtue, and in all
perfection.‖[30]It is a partnership, not only of the
past, but of all generations – of the dead, the living,
and those yet to be born.
It must be underscored that although conservatives
are against revolution, they are equally opposed to
unchanging reaction. It is true that evils are latent to
change, but change is imminent and inevitable. And
should change happen, it must be done by a slow,
almost imperceptible, but well-sustained progress.
Reformations must proceed upon the principle of
reverence to antiquity, and that they be done upon
the analogical precedent, authority and example of
the latter. Time assists this long process of
compensating, reconciling, and balancing the
contending principles found in the minds and affairs
of men. The society so established from such a
grueling process achieves excellence in composition.
And having fixed itself with sure, solid, and ruling

principles of governance, it could be left to its own
operation.
Conservatism, more than anything else, is practical
and realistic. It averts idealism and all abstract,
metaphysical sophistications. Institutions, which the
conservatives promote, are not patterned after
theories; theories are rather drawn from them. Tried
by their effects, institutions are presumed to be good
if they make the people happy, united, wealthy, and
powerful. They are the result of various necessities
and expediencies.[31] Through them, political ends
are best obtained. Unlike in the case of the old
―proven and tested‖ institutions, ―a new and merely
theoretical system expects every form of contrivance
to appear, on the face of it, to answer its
ends‖[32] which in fact does not happen. Thus,
Burke stresses that we should follow the example of
our forefathers, and if there is a need to change,
make the reparation as nearly as possible in the style
of their establishment – cautious, circumspective, and
moral.

Socialism: Communism and The Manifesto

Socialism is a belief which states that the means of
production of a society must be publicly owned and
managed.
Historically speaking, socialism is a modern
conception; not only was the socialist means of
production impossible during the ancient and
medieval times, it was even
unconceivable.[33] Production back then took place
only in scattered workshops, stores and agricultural
strips, each known for their valued trademarks. The
idea of amassing all resources and placing them
under the sole management of the government goes
beyond, theoretically and realistically, the system of
ancient and medieval commerce.
It was only at the very threshold of the modern
period that the first authentic socialist position was
formulated. In his Utopia, Thomas Moore spoke of a
society free of money, wherein people share meals,
houses, and other goods in common. The problem,
however, is that Utopia was the work of an individual
genius and not the reflection of a social
movement.[34] It was only in mid 17th century,
during the English Civil Wars, that socialism took the
shape of a social movement and had its first practical
expression. During this period, Gerrard Winstanley
(1609-1660), who led the Digger movement, fought
for an ―agrarian communism,‖ believing that the earth
is a common treasury. This movement, however, was

short lived, as it was century and a half later in the
movement led by Babeuf during the French
Revolution. But in the 19th century, as a child of the
Industrial Revolution, socialism emerged as a
significant issue immensely affecting the political and
economic life of the advanced western countries. It
presented itself as a socio-economic structure which
could (or for the socialists, should) alter the 18th and
early 19th century capitalist Europe.
Socialism, although full of brilliant insights, was still
not systematized. It was just that – a collection of
passionate beliefs and hopes.[35] Then just at the
right time, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels entered the
picture; it became their historical mission to integrate
and systematize the variegated socialist beliefs. Thus,
the Manifesto was born, the profound synthesis of
socialism. It was the embodiment of socialist thoughts
and the crystallization of the socialist vision. It raised
socialism as world force and changed the direction of
history. As such, not only was the Manifesto one of
the most important documents in the history of
socialism, but it was too in the entire history of the
human race.
What was the message of socialist Marx and Engels in
the Manifesto? What made it so profound and life-
changing?

With such a compact message, it is hard to divide
the Manifesto into chewable parts. But for discussion
purposes, and with the hope of penetrating the
communist thought, we divide the document into five
central concepts: (1) historical materialism, (2) class
struggle, (3) the nature of capitalism, (4) the
inevitability of socialism, and (5) exploitation and
alienation.
Historical Materialism. History is a dialectical process;
it is not a collection of unrelated facts, but a universal
process in which everything is related.[36] Borrowing
the idea of G.W.F. Hegel, Marx and Engels believed
that history follows the dialectical pattern of thesis,
antithesis, and synthesis. Social structures, as theses,
are countered by opposite social structures, the
antitheses; and from their interaction is the birth of a
new social structure, which is a synthesis or
advancement beyond the previous social structures.
However, unlike Hegel, they thought that what
governed the pattern was ―matter,‖ and not
the Geist (Spirit); that the controlling forces of history
are the material forces and especially those of
economic production.[37] Thus, their historical
dialectic is called historical materialism, in contrast to
Hegel‘s historical idealism.
Marx and Engels believed that through this philosophy
they could see, even predict, the destiny of
humankind. History‘s movement has been decoded,

its logical pattern has been revealed. The central
project of human history is nothing less than the
production and reproduction of material life.[38] Part
I of the Manifesto brilliantly speaks of this pattern as
it maps out the rise and development of capitalism
from its primitive beginnings in the medieval period to
its full-blown form in the 19th century.
Class Struggle. History is essentially social, and not
one directed by
individuals.[39] The Manifesto speaks of this social
history as a ―history of class struggles‖ between ―the
freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and
serf… oppressor and oppressed.‖[40]Ancient Rome
was divided into patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves;
Middle Ages into feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters,
serfs, and other subordinate gradations. Capitalism
emerged from feudalism, until what remained now is
the basic division of bourgeoisie andproletariat. The
bourgeoisie class owned the means of production and
employed labor, while the proletariat class sells its
labor power to live.[41] The former is the class of
capitalists, while the latter is the ―class of laborers,
who live only so long as their labor increases
capital.‖[42]Engels explained that all existing
societies before this were also based on basically the
same economic system – some people did the work
and other appropriated the social surplus. In securing
their livelihood, some work; some own. The

materialistic, social history created groups of
fundamentally antagonistic interests. These conflicting
groups, and not individuals, underlie the socio-
historical movements.
Nature of Capitalism. Although the word ―capitalism‖
does not occur in the Manifesto, it was nonetheless
profoundly discussed. Capitalism, the bourgeois
society, is Marx‘s main subject of interest. He
describes it as a form of economy which ―has left no
other bond between man and man than naked self-
interest, than ‗callous cash payment.‘‖[43] It is an
economy which converted everyone, from physicians
and lawyers, and priests and the scientists, into paid
wage-laborers, and has reduced family relation into
mere money relation.[44] Furthermore, capitalism,
after having destroyed all hitherto industries,
constantly revolutionizes its means of production,
constantly expands itself throughout the whole
surface of the world. Clothed with its identity as
―civilization,‖ capitalism draws nations together but
concentrates property in the hands of few. Through
this form of economy, the bourgeoisie ―created more
massive and more colossal productive forces than
have all preceding generations together.‖[45]
But this immense productivity will ironically turnout to
be capitalism‘s own downfall. It has conjured up such
gigantic means of production that, like a sorcerer, it
can no longer control the powers which its spells

summoned. Not only has it forged the weapons that
bring death to itself, it has also called into existence
the men who are to wield those weapons, the
proletariat.[46]
The Inevitability of Socialism. Marx and Engels
categorically state, in the last sentence of Part I of
the Manifesto, that the fall of capitalism and the
victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable. Aside
from the mere fact that capitalism is the cause of its
own doom, it also creates and trains, by virtue of its
nature, the proletariat which at certain stage of
development must overthrow capitalism and replace it
with socialism.
Victory of the proletariat entails the emergence of a
classless society wherein the proletariat and
bourgeoisie disappear, and everyone is equal and
entitled to the effects of his own work. Since it is
private property or ownership of such property that
constitutes the division between the bourgeoisie and
proletariat, ―abolition of private property‖ and its
attendant form of consciousness that manifest this
proletarian victory. This is at the heart of
Communism.
Exploitation and Alienation. In In Tucker, Marx said,
man, even though bestowed with natural capacities,
is a ―suffering, conditioned, and limited creature,‖
dependent on nature for his sustenance.[47] Man

must therefore interact with nature, i.e. through
labor, in order to satisfy his needs. Thus, labor is
essential to human existence, for what man is, is how
he produces – people are defined by the work they
do.
The first historical act of man was his attempt to
control the world in a way that serves his interests.
He developed tools, technology in the broad sense,
that eventually led to the creation of more needs.
During the industrial revolution, technology and
human needs and wants simultaneously developed
and escalated in unimaginable proportions.
Under capitalism, owners are in the position of
dominance to increase their own gain; that in the
struggle between the capitalist and the workers, the
owners of capital have a distinct advantage. While
capitalists are driven by their interest in personal
profit, workers become impoverished as they are
provided with only those wages necessary to continue
production. In addition, bureaucratic capitalism
depersonalizes production. It removes the unique
stamp of the individual on his work. Everything
becomes a routine, workers become automatons. The
quality of work is no longer important, only the
quantity matters. Labor is no longer seen as an
expression of creativity, but an object apart from
man. In capitalism, man becomes alienated from his
own work. As Marx said, the worker ―is at home when

he is not working, and when he is working he is not
at home.‖[48]
If we are defined by our work, yet that work is taken
away from us and made into an object, then we are
separated from our own sense of self.[49] We forget
that our basic character as human beings is to
creatively produce – work is our end in life. What
happens in capitalism is that we see work as
something reprehensible, as something to be avoided.
We work only because we have to, because we need
the money or because we are forced to
work.[50] Not only are we alienated from ourselves,
we are also alienated from one another. We see
others as mere components in our instrumental
world. The distance between ourselves and others
become more and more unbridgeable, and the
conditions, which this bureaucratic capitalism create,
give rise to a society devoid of human qualities, best
described as a society of machines.
What is worse is that we submit to this dominance
and exploitation, believing that things are supposed
to be this way. More than the system itself, what
enslaves us is our false consciousness. We are afraid
to question the circumstances under which we live,
and we fail to uncover the underlying reason of our
suffering. Marx and Engels are firmly convinced that
capitalism ―has resolved personal worth… for naked,
shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.‖[51] Thus,

communism, as an ideology and social theory, intends
to clear the clouded conceptions of men by illustrating
the conditions of domination that chain us. It
challenges us to bravely saunter the path toward
freedom. The reality of our condition compels us to
act. ―From each according to his ability,‖ said Marx
and Engels, ―to each according to his
needs!‖[52] The Manifesto ends with a serious
caveat and a vigorous exhortation, ―Working men of
all countries, unite!‖

III.

Should we let time and experience tell us where to go
and what to follow, as the conservatives propose?
Should we be confident with
our individual capacities and liberties, as the liberals
assert? Or should we forcefully remove private
property and establish a classless society, as the
communists advance?
In seeking for guidance and in gaining control over
the social situation, we resort to, or even create our
own, ideologies. These ideologies are very difficult to
resists, for they define reality as the mouth of men

says it so. But as accepting them is important,
evaluating them is equally important.
What guidance would we wish from these ideologies?
Do they lead us to the much-coveted ―good life‖?
Should we change them as they are already
impractical? Is the consciousness given by these
ideologies genuine or false? All these questions are
ought to be asked after looking into the exquisite and
passionate thoughts and ideologies of the past as well
as of the present.

END

[1] Greek cities, such as Athens, Sparta, and Corinth
are called, not just cities, but ―city-states‖ which have
their own sovereignty. They were self-sufficient,
highly independent, and with a Constitution and
government of their own.
[2] B. Ponton and P. Gill, Politics, Introduction. (New
York: Basil Blackwell, 1982), p.6.
[3] Kay Lawson, The Human Polity: An Introduction
to Political Science, Quezon City: KEN, Inc. (1989), p.
57.

[4] Martin Carnoy, The State and Political
Theory (New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
1984), p. 3.
[5] All references to The Communist Manifesto are
taken from the translations of Paul M. Sweezy and
Leo Huberman, The Communist Manifesto, Principles
of Communism, The Communist Manifesto After 100
Years (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968).
Henceforth, Communism.
[6] Lawson, p. 56.
[7] Cf. David E. Ingersoll, Communism, Fascism and
Democracy (Columbus, Oh.: Charles E. Merril, 1971),
p. 9.
[8] This ambiguity is more marked in the French
language than in any other European language. The
French word for liberalism,libéralisme, is understood
to embrace all the lefties creed of socialism,
anarchism, syndicalism, and communism; or a
political doctrine at variance with the creeds of the
left.
[9] Whereas Lockean liberalism understands freedom
as being left alone by the state, the other liberalism
sees freedom as ruling oneself through the medium
of a state that one has made one‘s own. Encyclopedia
of Philosophy, Volume 5, p. 324.

[10] See Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Second Edition,
p. 228.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Political Theories, p. 182.
[13] In his work De Cive, Hobbes boldly describes
man as a greedy being, who insists on taking what he
could have and strives to avoid death at all cost. His
acts are rationally geared only towards self-interest
and avoidance of death.
[14] Although they have stark differences, Thomas
Hobbes‘ and John Locke‘s (political) philosophy also
have striking similarities. For one, they make use of
similar themes, such as ―the state of nature,‖ ―natural
law,‖ ―right of nature,‖ and ―social contract,‖ in
discussing their political theories. It is therefore
important to distinguish the ideas of the two in order
to know their respective tenets.
[15] Locke uses the term ―property‖ in two senses.
In its first sense, property is the general name for
―lives, liberty, and estates‖ of individuals. This is the
inclusive sense of the term. In its second sense, on
the other hand, property means the ―product of one‘s
labor.‖ Property in the quoted statement is used in
the first sense to mean anything that is present and
owned by men.
[16] Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Ed., p. 510.

[17] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, p.
60.
[18] Cf. Ibid., pp. 61-62.
[19] Roth and Sontag, p. 307.
[20] It is interesting to note that this egoistic
economics of Smith runs contrary to his moral
philosophy, which is largely centered on ―sympathy.‖
[21] Smith, Adam, An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1977), p.
[22] This is a French term which literally means
―leave alone.‖
In the early part of his career, Mill also supported a
general policy of laissez-faire. But with an increasing
realization that political freedom is useless without
economic security, he welcomed, though with
reservations, the economic theory of socialism.
[23] Lyman Tower Sargent, Contemporary Political
Ideologies, 5th ed. (Homewood, III Dorsey, 1961), p.
3.
[24] Political Theories, p. 49.
[25] Reflections, p. 58.

[26] Edmund Burke, ―Appeal from the New to the
Old Whigs,‖ in Edmund Burke, Works, vol. 4 (Boston:
Little, Brown, 1866), pp. 174-175.
[29] Lawson, p. 59.
[30] Reflections, p. 63
[31] Reflections, p. 64
[32]Reflections, p. 64.
[33] Paul Sweezy and Leo Huberman, ―The
Communist Manifesto After 100 Years,‖
in Communism, p. 87-88. Henceforth,Sweezy.
[34] Sweezy, p. 88.
[35] Sweezy, p. 89.
[36] Ibid., p. 352.
[37] Roth & Sontag, The Questions of
Philosophy (California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company, 1988), p. 352-353.
[38] Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[39] Roth & Sontag, p. 348.
[40] Communism, p. 2.
[41] Roth and Sontag, p. 348.

[43] Ibid., p. 5-6.
[44] Ibid., p. 6.
[45] Ibid., p. 10.
[46] Ibid. p. 13.
[47] Marx, in Tucker 1978, p. 115.
[48] In Tucker, p. 74.
[49] Robert Denhardt, Theories of Public
Organization, (California: Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company, 1984), p. 24.
[50] Ibid., p. 25.
[52] Karl Marx, ―Critique of the Gotha Programme,‖
in Karl Marx: Selected Writings. Edited by David
McLellan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p.
569.

December 5, 2010 Posted by tamayaosbc | Politics
and Governance | Leave a Comment

Basic Concepts in Politics
POLITICS

1. Definition: politics is the way in which we
understand and order our social affairs, and acquire
greater control over the situation.[1]
It is also the strategy for maintaining cooperation
among people with different needs and ideals in life,
or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether
this is a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state.[2]
2. Basic Concepts: order, power, and justice
a. Study of politics seeks to study how human life in
the aggregate is ordered.[3]
i. Community – one kind of social order which is an
association of individuals who share a common
identity. This identity is usually defined by geography,
sense of common purpose, and a single political
allegiance. It arises to fulfill a wide variety of social
functions (such as physical security, economic
prosperity, cultural enrichment) that cannot be met
by individuals acting on their own.[4]
ii. Government – a political order that maintains and
perpetuates the community. It is said to possess
―sovereignty‖ if it can successfully assert its claim to
rule. And it is said to ―legitimate‖ if its claim to rule
(authority) is willingly accepted.
Forms:

1. Monarchy – one man (king) noted for his noble
lineage and honor is vested with the right to rule
and control the society. If this man pursues his own
selfish interest, this form of government may turn
into ―Tyranny.‖
2. Aristocracy – a selected few who are known for their
wealth and education have the right to rule. If this
selected few pursue their own personal interests,
this form of government may end up in becoming an
―Oligarchy.‖
3. Democracy – it is the rule by the people, for the
people, and of the people. If this form of
government downgrades into the rule of people‘s
passions instead or reason, it becomes
―Demagoguery‖ or ―Mobocracy.‖
iii. Nation-state – most distinctive and largest self-
sufficient political configuration in the modern world…
its actions and reactions affect not only the welfare
and destiny of its own people but, increasingly, the
fate of peoples in other lands.[5]
1. Nation is a distinct group of people who share a
common background including any or all of the
following: geographic location, history, racial or ethnic
characteristics, religion, language, culture, and belief
in common political ideas.
2. State denotes the existence of a viable, sovereign
government exercising authority and power in the

name of the society. It is often used synonymously
with country and nation, although a nation may be
composed of more than one state, like USA. In more
technical and formal terms, state is a community of
persons more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, having a
government of their own to which the great body of
inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom
from external control.[6]
b. The government cannot maintain order
w/o power.
i. There are many sources of power aside from
physical force.
Ex. Wealth, eloquent oratory, vigilant secret police,
cunning
ii. The more abundant the power source, the greater
the capabilities of the government.
iii. Who rules? In accordance with the law, or is it the
just or the moral?
c. When the power is exercised in the interest of the
ruled, there is justice.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
- ―Human beings use reason and language to declare
what is just and unjust. Therefore it is the peculiarity
of man, in comparison with the rest of the animal

world, that he alone possesses a perception of the
good and evil. Human faculties make moral judgment
and therefore also political discussion. ―
3. Politics and Everyday Life
a. Politics is all about the way human beings are
governed, which involves order, power, and
justice.[7] It is not just an abstract study.
b. It involves the government‘s day-to-day
performance.
c. It does not affect only one individual, but is
inextricably bound up with the perpetual quest for
what is fair or just in light of the interest of the entire
community.
d. Issue is more or less political based on the extent
that the use of political power affects the lives and
well-being of private citizens.
e. An issue becomes political when the government
must render a decision, which must always be for the
common good of the community.
4. How is politics studied?
a. Traditional Approach: to understand the truth
about politics (Aristotle); to assess how well a
particular policy, process, or institution works; what
politics ought to be.

Confucius, Lao tzu, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St.
Thomas, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Marx
b. Behavioral Approach: place little emphasis on
abstract or normative political questions, and focus on
more concrete task of describing and predicting
political behaviors and the dynamics and outcomes of
political processes; avoids moral and philosophical
judgments; considers only those which can be
scientifically proved; does not study ―values‖, only
facts, which can be measured by means of scientific
method (quantifiable).
But because of complexity of human behavior,
experts argue over methodology.
5. Purpose of Political Science
a. By studying political science, we become more
aware of our dependence on the political system and
better equipped to determine when to favor and
when to oppose change.[8]
b. to be able to advise communities on how to
become more effective.
c. To have better political opinions and decisions.
d. to foster moral and intellectual growth.[9]
6. What‘s wrong with politics nowadays?
a. It deviates from the concept of good politics, which
ought to be a reflection of the aspirations to

contribute to the happiness of the community and not
of the need to deceive or pillage the community.[10]
b. It is now associated with art of deception,
intrigues, demagoguery and ruthless egoism.[11]
7. Politics in the Philippines[12]
a. takes place in an organized framework of
a presidential, representative, and
democratic republic.
b. It revolves around the three separate and
sovereign yet interdependent branches: the legislative
branch (the law-making body), the executive branch
(the law-enforcing body), and the judicial branch (the
law-interpreting body).
1. Executive power is exercised by
the government under the leadership of the
president.
2. Legislative power is vested in both the
government and the two-chamber congress —
the Senate (the upper chamber) and the House of
Representatives (the lower chamber).
3. Judicial power is vested in the courts with
the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the
highest judicial body.

[1] B. Ponton and P. Gill, Politics, Introduction. (New
York: Basil Blackwell, 1982), p.6.
[2] Amable G. Tuibeo, ―Politics and Governance: A
Critical Introduction (Makati: Grandwater Publication,
1998), p . 1.
[3] Thomas M. Magstadt & Peter M. Schoten,
―Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, & Issues.
(New York: St. Martin‘s Press, 1988), p. 4.
[4] Ibid. p. 5.
[5] Ibid. p. 5-7.
[6] Garner, Introduction to Political Science, pp. 38-
41.
[7] Ibid. p. 7.
[8] Ibid., p. 21
[9] Ibid.
[10] The New York Review of Books, Feb 15, 1990,
p. 22.
[11] Tuibeo, p. 11.
[12] Wikipedia free enclyclopedia

November 19, 2010 Posted by tamayaosbc | Politics and Governance | Leave a
Comment

Lecture 1: Definition of Terms

Politics,governance

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