Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology. The current presentation is about the historical perspectives of the discovery of atoms and subatomic particles. The later part of the presentation describes various atomic models and the properties of subatomic particles with a description of commonly used terms like molecules, ions and compounds.

1. Presented by
Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi
Head
Department of Biotechnology
Marwadi University
Rajkot (Gujarat)
Fundamentals of Atom, Molecule
& Ions

2. Democritus (400 BC)
 His theory: Matter could
not be divided into smaller
and smaller pieces forever,
eventually the smallest
possible piece would be
obtained.
 This piece would be
indivisible.
 He named the smallest
piece of matter “atomos,”
meaning “not to be cut.”

3.  Two thousand years
later a British chemist
and schoolteacher
brings back
Democritus’s idea of
the atom
 He performed many
experiments to study
how elements join
together to form new
substances
 He found that they
combine in specific
ratios (remember the
electrolysis of water)
and he supposed it was
because the elements
are made of atoms.

4. 1. Elements are composed of extremely small
particles called atoms. All atoms of a given
element are identical, having the same size,
mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one
element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
2. Compounds are composed of atoms of more
than one element. The relative number of atoms
of each element in a given compound is always
the same.
3. Chemical reactions only involve the rearrangement
of atoms. Atoms are not created or destroyed in
chemical reactions.
2.1

5. 8 X2Y16 X 8 Y+
Law of conservation of
Mass (Dalton’s Theory)

6. J.J. Thomson (Discovery of
Electron)
 What particle did Thomson
discover? J.J. Thomson
discovered that atoms are
made of smaller negatively-
charged particles called
electrons.
 Thomson’s discovery was
the result of doing
experiments with “cathode
ray tubes”

7. J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-
(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics)
Cathode Ray Tube
Experiment

8. Thomson’s Plum Pudding
Model of Atom
 Thomson did not know
how the electrons in an
atom were arranged. He
believed they were mixed
throughout an atom.
 He proposed that the atom
was a sphere of positively
charged material. Spread
throughout the atom were
the negatively charged
electrons similar to plums
in a pudding or chocolate
chips in ice cream.

9. Robert Milikan (Milikan’s
Oil Drop Experiment)
Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

10.  Awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for his discovery
of alpha particles, positively
charged particles emitted
from radioactive elements
 Was a student of J.J.
Thomson but disagreed with
the “Plum Pudding Model”
 Devised an experiment to
investigate the structure of
positive and negative
charges in the atom.
Ernest Rutherford
Discovery of Proton

11. Ernest Rutherford
Discovery of Proton

12. 1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus
2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)
 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s
(~5% speed of light)
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)
Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment

13.  Most of the particles traveled straight through
the gold foil
What was the surprising behavior of
a few of the particles?
• A few of the particles were deflected
and some even bounced back

14. Result: Most of the positively charged particles went
straight through the gold foil.
Atomic Theory: Most of the matter of the atom is found in
a very small part of the atom. This is called the nucleus
of the atom. It is very tiny and extremely dense.
Result: Some of the positively charged particles were
deflected or even
bounced back.
Atomic Theory: Like charges repel so the nucleus must
have a positive charge. If electrons have a negative
charge they could not be in a positively charged nucleus.
Electrons must surround the nucleus at a distance.
Result: The diameter of the nucleus is 100,000 times
smaller than the diameter of the entire gold atom.
Atomic Theory: Atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny,
massive nucleus at the center .

15. atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m
nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m
Rutherford’s Model of the
Atom

16. The diameter of a pinhead is 100,000 times smaller than
the diameter of a stadium. Likewise the diameter of the
nucleus of an atom is 100,000 times smaller than the
diameter of an atom

17. H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4
4
2 + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy
neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g

18.  Bohr proposed that
electrons move in
paths at certain
distances around the
nucleus.
 Electrons can jump
from a path on one
level to a path on
another level.

19.  Bohr proposed that
electrons move in paths
at certain distances
around the nucleus.
 Electrons can jump
from a path on one
level to a path on
another level.
 Click here
http://www.colorado.e
du/physics/2000/quan
tumzone/bohr.html

20.  Electrons travel
in regions
called “electron
clouds”
 You cannot
predict exactly
where an
electron will be
found

21. The energy that an
electron has is based on
its location around the
nucleus. (Electrons that
are closer to the nucleus
have less energy than
those that are farther away
from the nucleus)

22. A bookshelf can help you understand
the movement of electrons.
•Each shelf represents an energy level
•Each book represents an electron
•You can move a book to a higher or
lower shelf with the correct amount of
energy.
•A book cannot be between shelves
(An electron can move by gaining or
losing energy but can never be
between energy levels)

23. Particle
Mass
(g)
Charge
(Coulombs)
Charge
(units)
Electron (e-
) 9.1 x 10-28
-1.6 x 10-19
-1
Proton (p+
) 1.67 x 10-24
+1.6 x 10-19
+1
Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10-24
0 0
mass p = mass n = 1840 x mass e-
2.2

24. Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
XA
Z
H1
1 H (D)2
1 H (T)3
1
U235
92 U238
92
Mass Number
Atomic Number
Element Symbol
Representation of an
Element

25. Isotopes (Identical Atomic
Number but Different Mass
Isotopes differ in the number
of neutrons.

26. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in C14
6 ?
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in C11
6 ?
6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
Self Review
2.3

27. Period
Group
AlkaliMetal
NobleGas
Halogen
AlkaliEarthMetal
2.4
Periodic Table

28. A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds
H2 H2O NH3 CH4
A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
Molecules

29. Ions
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.
anion – ion with a negative charge
If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
Na
11 protons
11 electrons Na+ 11 protons
10 electrons
Cl
17 protons
17 electrons Cl-
17 protons
18 electrons

30. A monatomic ion contains only one atom
A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
OH-, CN-, NH4
+, NO3
-
Types of Ions

31. 13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons
34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons
Self Review
2.5
How many protons and electrons are in Al27
13 ?3+
How many protons and electrons are in Se78
34
2- ?

32. 2.5
Monoatomic Ions

33. 2.6
Standard Models and Formulas
to Represent Molecules

34. A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance
An empirical formula shows the simplest
whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance
H2OH2O
molecular empirical
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2
Molecular Formula V/S
Empirical Formula

35. ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and an anions
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each
formula unit must equal zero
The ionic compound NaCl
Ionic Compounds

36. Al2O3
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al3+ O2-
CaBr2
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
Ca2+ Br-
Na2CO3
1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na+ CO3
2-
Formula for Ionic
Compounds

37. NH4
+
ammonium SO4
2-
sulfate
CO3
2-
carbonate SO3
2-
sulfite
HCO3
-
bicarbonate NO3
-
nitrate
ClO3
-
chlorate NO2
-
nitrite
Cr2O7
2-
dichromate SCN-
thiocyanate
CrO4
2-
chromate OH-
hydroxide
2.7

38.  Ionic Compounds
◦ often a metal + nonmetal
◦ anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name
BaCl2 barium chloride
K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate
2.7

39.  Transition metal ionic compounds
◦ indicate charge on metal with
Roman numerals
FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride
Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide
2.7

40.  Molecular compounds
◦ nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
◦ common names
 H2O, NH3, CH4, C60
◦ element further left in periodic table is 1st
◦ element closest to bottom of group is 1st
◦ if more than one compound can be formed from the
same elements, use prefixes to indicate number of
each kind of atom
◦ last element ends in ide
2.7
Molecular Compounds

41. HI hydrogen iodide
NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O dinitrogen monoxide
Molecular Compounds
2.7

42. An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
HCl
•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride
•Dissolved in water (H+ Cl-), hydrochloric acid
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.
HNO3 nitric acid
H2CO3 carbonic acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
Acids

43. 2.7
Naming Oxoacids and
Oxoanions

44. A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
NaOH sodium hydroxide
KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
Base

45. Visualization of Molecules by
Atomic Force Microscopy

46. Thank You
Kindly Reach us at:
Marwadi University
Rajkot-Morbi Highway Road, Gauridad, Rajkot, Gujarat 360003
Website: https://www.marwadieducation.edu.in/