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1. THE LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA, though
no longer functioning at the time the city
surrendered to the Arabs in 642/21H,
symbolises today the Greek scholarship
that the Islamic scholars inherited and
expanded. As early as the third century
bc Alexandria had become a centre of
learning, and it continued to flourish
during Roman Imperial and early
Byzantine rule of Egypt. In the first
century of Muslim rule, Greek continued
as the official administrative language of
Egypt, and for some time thereafter
Alexandria continued as a self-contained
administrative area, often with the
financial and civil administration
managed by Copts (the indigenous
Coptic-speaking Egyptian Christians,
the word “Copt” coming from the Greek
term for the native Egyptian, Aiguptios).
The earliest dated Arabic manuscript in
the British Library reflects the mixed
Christian and Muslim society in Egypt
under the early Muslim rulers (fig. I).
It is a document written on papyrus in
the year 750/133H. In it the governors of
the district of Memphis in Egypt grant
permission to a Copt of the Convent of
Abû Hirmîs to work in Old Cairo
(Fusàâà) for the month of Rabî II¿ 113H
(or November 750). The name of the
Coptic recipient of this permit is no
longer legible, but he is described as
“having a grizzled beard, stout, of clear
complexion, with moles on his face”,
and the governors request his proper
treatment from any official whom he
might encounter.
The papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus L.),
native to Egypt, grows profusely along
the Nile River and was a major source
of writing material for many centuries.
The pulp, when cut into strips and
placed crosswise in layers and suitably
treated, formed long strips of a smooth
and flexible writing material that could
| i | Papyrus document
A document written on papyrus
in the year 750 (133H) in which
the governors of the district of
Memphis in Egypt grant
permission to a Copt of the
Convent of Abû Hirmîs to work
for a month in Old Cairo (FusØåØ).
It is the oldest dated Arabic
manuscript in the British Library.
Or. 15 (ca. 20.5 x 22 cm)
A Note Regarding Dates
The Muslim calendar is a lunar
one of 354 days beginning from
the day of the emigration (Hijrah)
of the Prophet Mûammad from
Mecca to Medina, which
occurred on the 16th of July 622
of the Christian calendar.
Consequently, Muslim dates do
not correspond directly to those
of the Christian era (ad)
commonly used today in Europe
and elsewhere. In the following
essay, when specific dates are
given, the first will be that of the
Christian calendar (sometimes
called the Common Era) and the
second that of the Muslim era,
designated by h. For example,
the date 787/171h refers to 787
ad, which is roughly equivalent to
171 of the Muslim calendar.
General references to a century
rather than a specific year refer
to centuries of the Christian era.
For example, 9th century refers
to the years 800-899 ad (or 184-
287 of the Muslim era). The
designation ad will be used only
when there is need to distinguish
a date from an earlier bc date.
be rolled or cut into smaller pieces.
While in Classical Antiquity parchment
(vellum) was widely used in other
regions, in Egypt papyrus remained in
use throughout the Roman period and
continued to be used in the early years
of the Islamic era, as demonstrated by
this document written in 750. By the
tenth century, however, papyrus could
no longer compete with paper, which
was less expensive to produce.
Chinese prisoners of war taken after a
battle in 754/133H are said to have been
responsible for introducing papermaking
into the Eastern Islamic lands.
Samarqand quickly gained a reputation
for fine paper, and within fifty years
paper-mills were operating in Baghdad
and other localities. In Egypt, paper was
sporadically used in the ninth century,
and by the middle of the tenth century it
had replaced papyrus as the main
writing material.
It was through the written word that
Hellenistic Greek scholarship was
transmitted to the medieval Islamic
world, and from one generation of
scholars to another and thence from one
region to another. The arts of the hand-
written book - calligraphy, illumination,
illustration, and binding - were and are
highly developed in Islamic culture.
While European medieval hand-written
books were prepared on vellum or
parchment made from animal skin, in
the Islamic world nearly all manuscripts
were written on paper. Printing, on the
other hand, came relatively recently to
the Near East (essentially not until the
nineteenth century), so that the careful
copying by hand of treatises continued
to be a living and important tradition
through the nineteenth century.
Only by hiring a scribe to prepare a
copy, or copying it himself, could a
scholar possess his own copy of a book.
ArabicTreasures
of the British Library:
From Alexandria to
Baghdad and beyond
Emilie Savage-Smith
The Oriental Ins
titute
Univers
ity of Oxford
1
| i |

2. The fluid Arabic script, which reads
from right to left, lent itself to numerous
decorative forms and abstract patterns,
some of which were developed
particularly for transcribing copies of
the Qurân, the holy text of Islam revered
by Muslims as both the written form of
revelation and the actual word of God.
The earliest form of Qurânic decoration
was marginal ornaments indicating
individual verses. Later, designs
separating the chapters (sûras) were
devised, along with marginal
decorations for the fifth and tenth verses
of a chapter and ornaments marking the
places at which ritual prostration was
required.
The most ambitious copies of the Qurân
included full-page frontispieces,
sometimes even a two-page frontispiece.
An example of the latter is a Qurân
made in Egypt in 1304 /704 for the High
Chamberlain (ustadh al-dâr) Rukn al-
Dîn Baybars, five years later to become
the Mamluk Sultan Baybars II (see fig.
II). Because this Qurân was made in
seven volumes, the two central eight-
angled stellar panels of the double
frontispiece bear the phrase “the first
seventh” written in Arabic in a style of
script known as thuluth. The extensive
use of geometrical patterns and the
ornamental Eastern Kufic script used in
the upper and lower panels are typical
of the Mamluk style of illumination.
The opening verses (Sûrat al-fâtiáah)
are illustrated in fig. 2A, transcribed in
gold thuluth script on a ground of
variously coloured dots and enclosed by
an illuminated frame with attached
medallions. This particular manuscript
was illuminated by Muáammad ibn
Mubâdir and Aydughdî ibn ¿Abd Allâh
al-Badrî, and it appears to be the sole
surviving example of the work of the
famous calligrapher Muáammad ibn
al-Waáîd.
| ii | Frontispiece of
Baybars’s Qur’ån
The double frontispiece to a
QurΩån made in Egypt in 1304
(704H) for the Mamluk Sultan
Baybars II. It was illuminated by
Mu∑ammad ibn Mubådir and
Aydughdî ibn ºAbd Allåh al-Badrî,
and the calligrapher was the
famous Mu∑ammad ibn al-Wa∑îd.
Add. 22406, fols. 1b-2a
(47.5 x 32 cm)
| 2a | Opening of Baybars’s
Qur’ån
The opening chapter, Sûrat
al-fåti∑ah, of a QurΩån made in
Egypt in 1304 (704H) for the
Mamluk Sultan Baybars II. It was
illuminated by Mu∑ammad ibn
Mubådir and Aydughdî ibn ºAbd
Allåh al-Badrî, and the
calligrapher was the famous
Mu∑ammad ibn al-Wa∑îd.
Add. 22406, fols. 2b-3a
(47.5 x 32 cm)
| iii | Mamluk Qur’an
A QurΩån copied in Egypt in the
14th century and donated to a
mosque in Cairo by the Mamluk
sultan Faraj ibn Barqûq (reg.
1399-1412/801-815h). The last
verses of Sûrah (chapter) 7,
al-Aºåf, and the beginning of
Sûrah 8, al-Anfål, are shown.
The beginning of Sûrah (chapter)
8, al-Aºråf, from a QurΩån copied
in Egypt in the 14th century and
donated to a mosque in Cairo
by the Mamluk sultan Faraj ibn
Barqûq (reg. 1399-1412/801-815h).
Or. 848, fols. 26b-27a
(26.2 x 19.6 cm)
| 3a | Frontispiece of
Mamluk Qur’an
The frontispiece to the ninth
volume of a QurΩån in thirty
volumes copied in Egypt in the
14th century and donated to
a mosque in Cairo by the
Mamluk sultan Faraj ibn Barqûq
(reg. 1399-1412/801-815h).
Or. 848, fol. 1b (26.2 x 19.6 cm)
The British Library has a large collection
of Qurâns, of which another fine
example is that illustrated in fig. III.
Copied in Egypt in the fourteenth
century, using a style of Arabic script
known as rayáânî, it was donated by a
deed of waqf (religious endowment) to a
mosque in Cairo by the Mamluk sultan
Faraj ibn Barqûq who ruled from 1399
to 1412. The manuscript contains the
ninth part of a Qurân copied in thirty
volumes. The gold rectangle at the top
of the left-hand folio of the illustrated
opening (fig. III) marks the beginning of
Sûrah (chapter) 8, al-Anfâl, while the
almond-shaped ornament on the same
folio indicates the beginning of one of
the 60 parts into which the Qurân is
divided. In the margin of the folio facing
this opening (fig. III) and containing the
last verses of Sûrah (chapter) 7, al-Arâf,
there is a mosque-like gold decoration
containing the word sajdah
(`prostration') written in blue, indicating
that at this point in the recitation of the
Qurân prostration should be performed.
This volume also has a frontispiece
(fig. 3a) that is an excellent example of
Mamluk geometric illumination.
Figural imagery does not normally
appear in an Islamic religious context,
but there was a vigorous tradition of
figural representation in other writings,
particularly those of science and
medicine and in products of the non-
Muslim communities. For example, the
Arabic translations of the Bible made for
Christian minority communities
combine artistic conventions of figural
representation derived from Byzantine
sources with the geometrical
illumination techniques employed by
illuminators of Qurâns. An example can
be seen in fig. IV, which shows two
leaves of an Arabic version of the Book
of Psalms copied and illuminated in
Egypt in the fourteenth or early fifteenth
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
2

3. century. The overall design of the
frontispiece on the right-hand side uses
a complex star configuration typical of
Egyptian-Syrian Mamluk Qurânic
illuminations. On the folio facing the
frontispiece (fig. IV), however, is a
¿portrait¡ of David that employs a totally
different iconographic tradition going
back to portraiture techniques and
compositions of Late Antiquity. Another
full opening of the manuscript can be
seen in fig. V. Here each folio has
rectangular panels with attached
marginal medallions, and at the top and
bottom there are running headings
written on a ground of spiralling vines.
The central panel has the Arabic
translation written in cloudbands with
surrounding vegetal design and also
Coptic and Syriac annotations. This
version of the Psalms is prefaced by an
introduction excerpted from the sayings
of Saint Athanasius, patriarch of
Alexandria.
Another example is the frontispiece for
the Gospel of Luke (fig. 6A) that is found
in an Arabic translation of the Gospels
copied and illuminated in Egypt and
completed on 25 December 1336, with
the date given in the Muslim calendar
(20 Jumâdá I 737H) and in the Coptic
calendar. Each of the four Gospels
begins with an illuminated frontispiece
followed by a ¿portrait¡ of the
appropriate Evangelist (see Fig. VI). Here
again the ¿portrait¡ of Luke displays
Byzantine and Late Antique influences,
while the impact of Mamluk book and
Qurân illumination is evident in the
frontispiece.
Translationsfrom the Greek
After the ¿Abbâsids overthrew the
Umayyad caliphate in the year 750/133H,
the centre of power moved from
| iv | Frontispiece of Book
of Psalms
An illuminated frontispiece, and,
on the facing folio, a ºportraitΩ
of David. From an Arabic version
of the Book of Psalms copied
and illuminated in Egypt in the
14th or early 15th century.
Arundel Or. 15, fols. 37b-38a
(26 x 17.5 cm)
| v | Opening of Book of
Psalms
The illuminated full-opening of
an Arabic version of the Book of
Psalms copied and illuminated
in Egypt in the 14th or early 15th
century. The text is annotated
between the lines in Coptic
and Syriac.
Arundel Or. 15, fols. 38b-39a
(26 x 17.5 cm)
| vi | ºPortraitΩ of Luke
A ºportraitΩ of the evangelist
Luke, from an Arabic translation
of the Gospels copied and
illuminated in Egypt and
completed on 25 December
1336 (20 Jumådá I 737H).
Add. 11856, fol. 95b
(21.6 x 14.1 cm)
| 6a | Frontispiece of
Gospel of Luke
An illuminated frontispiece for
the Gospel of Luke, from an
Arabic translation of the Gospels
copied and illuminated in Egypt
and completed on 25 December
1336 (20 Jumådá I 737H).
Add. 11856, fol. 95a
(21.6 x 14.1 cm)
Damascus to Baghdad, which then
became the venue for most of the
translations into Arabic of Greek
medical and scientific writings and for
the earliest treatises composed in Arabic
on these topics. The Graeco-Arabic
translation movement that took place in
Baghdad from the mid-eighth through
the tenth century was the result of a
sustained program subsidised publicly
and privately by the élite of ¿Abbâsid
society. Though the court had shifted
from a Greek-speaking area (Damascus)
to a non-Greek speaking area (Baghdad),
nonetheless this remarkable intellectual
venture produced translations of
virtually all the Greek writings (except
literary pieces such as dramas), many of
which had ceased to interest Byzantium.
Medical and scientific works dominated
the Greek material that was translated
into Arabic at this time. The Greek
teachings were welcomed and valued by
an emerging Islamic empire which
needed to find ways of dealing with
health problems (disease, pain, injuries,
and successful childbearing),
timekeeping requirements
(determination of prayer times, calendric
conversions, record keeping),
mathematical calculations (surveying,
geodesy), and astronomical needs. This
heritage of scientific theory and practice,
mingled with some Persian, Indian, and
Arab elements, was elaborated and
expanded by a community of both
Muslim and non-Muslim scholars
speaking many languages - Greek,
Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew - though
Arabic became the lingua franca and
Islam the dominant faith.
A number of Hellenistic Greek
mathematical treatises circulated in
Arabic versions, providing the
foundation upon which Islamic
mathematics developed. Foremost
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
3

4. amongst these was the Elements of
Euclid, written in Alexandria around
300 bc. There were several Arabic
versions and editions, the most
influential being a revision that was
prepared by the influential polymath
Naùîr al-Dîn al-Àûsî (d. 1274/672H).
Fig. VII shows a folio from an important
copy of this version of Euclid. Àûsî
completed his work on 11 December
1248 (23 Sha¿bân 646H), and this
manuscript was completed ten years
later, on 21 April 1258 (15 Rabî II¿
656H), and compared and corrected
against the original.
Other treatises of Euclid were also
translated into Arabic, as were the
Conics, The Section of a Ratio, and
other works by Apollonius of Perga
(c. 262-190BC) who studied in
Alexandria with the successors of
Euclid, the Introduction to Arithmetic
by Nicomachus of Gerasa (c. 100ad),
the Spherics of Theodosius (c. 150-70BC),
and another treatise of the same title by
Menelaus of Alexandria (fl. 98AD).
There were also Arabic translations of
the writings of Heron (dates uncertain)
and other Alexandrian mathematicians.
Of special importance for the history of
mechanics as well as mathematics were
the treatises by Archimedes (c. 287-
212BC), all of whose writings (including
The Sphere and the Cylinder, The
Equilibrium of Planes, and Floating
Bodies) were translated into Arabic.
For some, such as Apollonius and
Menelaus, only the Arabic versions
survive. There are also preserved today
Arabic versions of Archimedean treatises
whose Greek original is no longer
extant. Such may be the case in regard
to an Arabic treatise on the construction
of water-clocks that is said to be by
Archimedes. No Greek treatise on
water-clocks by Archimedes is extant
| vii | Pythagorean
theorum
The Pythagorean theorem in
the Arabic translation of Euclid’s
Elements as revised by Na±îr
al-Dîn al-Æûsî (d. 1274/672H).
The copy was completed on
21 April 1258 (15 RabîΩ II 656H)
and compared and corrected
against the original version by
al-Æûsî that was completed on
11 December 1248 (23 ShaΩbån
646H).
Add. 23387, fol. 28a
(16.8 x 12 cm)
| VIII | Musical fluting
machine
A general view of a musical
fluting machine (except the air
pipes and flute), showing the
waterwheel, gearing and cam.
From the Arabic translation of a
treatise on the musical
automaton by “Apollonius the
Carpenter, the Geometer”,
possibly Apollonius of Perga (late
3rd and early 2nd cent bc). The
same manuscript also contains
the earliest recorded copy of
Archimedes’s treatise on water-
clocks. Copy made in Egypt in
1295/694H.
Or. 14270, fol. 16b
(24.8 x 18 cm)
| 8A | Archimedes’s
water-clock
Part of the water-clock illus
trating
a copy of a treatis
e on the
cons
truction of water-clocks
s
aid to be by Archimedes
.
Undated copy
, probably 18th-
19th century India.
Add. 23391, fol. ?
?(19.2 x 12 cm)
today, and scholars have argued that the
first part of the Arabic treatise, with its
particular arrangement of the gears, may
well be a translation of the work of
Archimedes, though the latter part of
the Arabic treatise appears to be of later
origin. The British Library has two
copies of this important treatise. One
copy, fig. 8A, is undated but appears to
have been made in the eighteenth or
even nineteenth century. The second
copy was made in Egypt in 1295/694H,
some 350 years earlier than the other
three recorded copies and was unknown
to the scholars who have edited and
studied this treatise.
Both copies of the Archimedean treatise
on water-clocks are immediately
followed by a treatise on the
construction of a musical automaton,
a fluting machine, said to by
“Apollonius the Carpenter, the
Geometer” (see fig. VIII). It is possible
that the author of the original Greek
treatise was the mathematician
Apollonius of Perga, who was called by
Arabic writers “the carpenter”. The
device employed a vertical water-wheel
(which it refers to as recently invented)
with a vertical gear-wheel on its axis,
meshing with a lantern-pinion. Such a
design is consistent with it being
Hellenistic in origin.
In the fields of astronomy and
geography, no figure was of greater
influence in the medieval world than
Ptolemy of Alexandria, who made
observations there between 121 and
151 AD. Of his monumental treatise on
astronomy, the Almagest, the British
Library has a fine early copy of the
Arabic translation done by Isáâq ibn
Áunayn (the son of the more famous
translator Áunayn ibn Isáâq) and
corrected by Thâbit ibn Qurrah in the
ninth century. This copy was completed
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
4

5. on 25 October 1218 (3 Sha¿bân 615H),
and fig. IX shows a diagram illustrating
Ptolemy’s explanation of the orbit of the
planet Mercury, from Book 9 of the
thirteen books comprising the treatise.
Comparable to the influence exerted by
Ptolemy in astronomy was the role
played in the field of materia medica by
Dioscorides, whose Greek treatise on
medicinal substances written about 77AD
formed the basis of pharmaceutics for
centuries. It consists of five books and
covers not only plants but also animals
and minerals as sources of medicinal
substances. Several Arabic translations
and revisions were undertaken in ninth-
century Baghdad and in tenth-century
Spain and later. Arabic copies were
frequently illustrated, as is the copy in
the British Library, transcribed and
illustrated in Baghdad in 1334/735H.
The illustration (fig. X) is taken from
Book 4 of the treatise and shows two
plants, the top one labelled lîmûniyûn,
an Arabic transliteration of the Greek
name for the wild marsh beet or sea
lavender (Statice limonium L. or related
variety). The lower illustration is
labelled lâghûbûn, again an Arabic
rendering of a Greek term designating
field clover (Trifolium arvense L. and
related varieties). A large proportion of
the plants described by Dioscorides
would not have been known in various
regions of the Middle East. The various
climatic conditions of desert, marsh,
mountain and coastal communities
meant that the types of medicinal plants,
as well as animal species and mineral
resources, differed greatly from one
region to another. Sometimes there were
local species and varieties which could
be identified as similar to those
described by Dioscorides, but in some
instances the substances described in the
Greek sources meant little to an Arab
practitioner. Conversely, the broader
| ix | Orbit of the planet
Mercury
A diagram illustrating the orbit
of the planet Mercury, from Book
(maqålah) 9 of the Almagest by
Ptolemy, in the translation made
in the 9th century by Is∑åq ibn
∂unayn and corrected by Thåbit
ibn Qurrah. The copy was
completed on 25 October 1218
(3 Shabºån 615H).
Add. 7475 R
ich., fol. 85a
(24.8 x 16 cm)
| x | Medicinal plants
Two plants, the wild marsh beet
or sea lavender (above) and
(below) field clover, from Book
(maqålah) 4 of the Arabic
translation of the Greek treatise
on materia medica by
Dioscorides. The copy was made
and illustrated in Baghdad in
1334/735H.
Or. 3366, fol. 122a
(24.2 x 16 cm)
| xi | Alexandrian summary
of medical treatise
The beginning of Jawåmiº Kitåb
Jålînûs fî al-bawl (“Summary of
Galen’s Book on Urine”) made
for teaching purposes following a
didactic method employing
summaries and branch diagrams
that apparently developed in
Alexandria. A later Persian
translation is written in the wide
margin. The copy is undated,
probably 17th-18th century
Or. 5862, fol.89b (31.5 x 23 cm)
geographic horizons of Islamic writers
brought them into contact with new
drugs which were included in subsequent
Arabic treatises.
The Greek physician Galen (d. c. 216AD)
was arguably the most influential figure
in the history of medicine. His
voluminous writings covered virtually
every aspect of medicine, and he
displayed a firm belief in a spiritual
Providence and in the foresight and
design of the Creator as exemplified in
the human form - ideas acceptable to
Muslim physicians. The combination of
philosophy and medicine, so evident in
the writings of Galen, continued to be a
part of medieval Islamic medical
literature. It was also primarily through
his writings that the Alexandrian
anatomists Herophilus and Erisistratus,
working in the first half of the third
century BC, were known to Arabic
writers.
Alexandria appears to have been
particularly associated with the teaching
of medicine and with the development
of new didactic methods. Of the large
number of Galenic treatises, sixteen
were considered fundamental to medical
teaching in pre-Islamic Alexandria and
were read in their entirety. In addition,
a series of summaries or synopses of
these sixteen treatises were prepared
specifically for teaching purposes, as
well as summaries of some other
treatises by Galen. The language in
which these summaries were prepared is
uncertain, but no Greek versions are
known to exist, though a number of
Arabic copies are preserved which are
called Jawâmi¿ al-Iskândarâniyîn, or
“Summaries of the Alexandrians”.
An example is shown in fig. XI, which is
a summary of Galen’s treatise on urine.
The copy is written in a diagrammatic
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
5

6. format employing branch-diagrams,
called in Arabic tashjîr, “ramification”,
from a root meaning “to plant with
trees”. This format, frequently
associated with the “Alexandrian
Summaries”, organised the information
into a form clearly delineating
categories, divisions, and subdivisions,
as an aide-mémoire. This technique of
diagramming was later introduced into
the Latin West, where from the twelfth
century it was frequently employed in
discourses on the classification of the
sciences or other scientific topics. On the
basis of Arabic manuscripts preserved
today it seems that the employment of
summaries and the annotation of a text
with branch-diagrams were important
didactic devices developed in Alexandria
in Late Antiquity.
The core group of “sixteen books” of
Galen that were used for teaching in
Alexandria prior to the Islamic rule were
also the subjects of commentaries. Abû
al-Faraj ¿Abd Allâh ibn al-Àayyib
(d. 1043/435H), a Christian physician
who was secretary to the archbisop of
Baghdad and worked in the most
important of the Baghdad hospitals,
composed a commentary on each of the
sixteen books. Of these, the British
Library has the oldest recorded copy of
his commentary on Galen’s treatise on
the medical art (al-Ùinâ¿ah al-ùaghîrah,
“the Small Art”, known in Latin as Ars
medica or Ars parva). The copy (fig. XII)
was completed on 20 February 1057 (12
Dhû al-Áijjah 448H), not long after the
commentator died. Manuscript copies
of this age are rare, and its lack of
diacritical dots distinguishing the letters
is typical of early manuscripts.
The British Library also possess a
remarkable, highly illustrated,
manuscript on medicinal substances and
natural history that was probably made
| xii | Eleventh-century
medical manual
The beginning of the
commentary on Galen’s manual
on the medical art (Kitåb
al-∞inåºah al-±aghîrah) composed
by Abû al-Faraj ºAbd Allåh ibn
al-Æayyib (d. 1043/435H).
The copy was completed on
20 February 1057 (12 Dhû
al-∂ijjah 448).
Arundel Or. 52,
fol. 2b (20.2 x 13.5 cm)
| xiii | Two hares
Miniature depicting two hares
under unidentified trees, from
Naºt al-∑ayawån wa-manåfiºuhu
(“The Description and Uses of
Animals”) compiled from works
by Aristotle and ºUbayd Allåh ibn
Bakhtîshûº (d. after 1058/450H).
The undated copy was probably
made in Baghdad in the first half
of the 13th century.
Or. 2874, fol. 167a
(15.5 x 23.5 cm)
| xiv | Two cicadas
Miniature depicting two cicadas
on an unidentified plant, from
Naºt al-∑ayawån wa-manåfiºuhu
(“The Description and Uses of
Animals”) compiled from works
by Aristotle and ºUbayd Allåh ibn
Bakhtîshûº (d. after 1058/450H).
The undated copy was probably
made in Baghdad in the first half
of the 13th century.
Or. 2784, fol. 60b
(15.5 x 23.5 cm)
in Baghdad in the first half of the
thirteenth century. It is titled Na¿t al-
áayawân wa-manâfiuhu (“The
Description and Uses of Animals”) and
was compiled from works by Aristotle
and ¿Ubayd Allâh ibn Jibrâ¡il ibn ¿Ubayd
Allâh ibn Bakhtîshû¿ (d. after 1058/450H).
The latter, who wrote a number of
medical treatises, was the seventh
generation of a prominent Baghdad
family of physicians. From the mid-
eighth to the mid-eleventh century,
twelve members of the Bakhtîshû¿ family
spread over eight generations were to
serve the caliphs as physicians and
advisors, to sponsor the translation of
texts, and to compose their own original
treatises. A remarkable, if not unique,
record in the history of medicine.
The medicinal use of animal parts was
part of the Greek treatise on materia
medica by Dioscorides and other
treatises on the topic. The present
treatise, however, incorporates a bit
more folklore than some medicinal
tracts, and the animals are frequently
illustrated. For example, it states that
the blood of hares (fig. XIII) was
beneficial when applied to moles,
freckles, or other skin problems, and
their brains, when fried, were good for
weakness following illness or for
teething children. In fig. XIV cicadas are
shown on an unidentified plant, for
insects as well as mammals and various
marine life were included. The
symmetrical depiction of animals back-
to-back (fig. XIII) or in confronted poses
(fig. XIV) is thought by art historians to
reflect a motif favoured by textile
designers.
The manuscript also includes a
miniature depicting the author ¿Ubayd
Allâh ibn Jibrâ¡il ibn Bukhtîshû¿ in
conversation with his patron, the prince
(amîr) Sa¿d al-Dîn (fig. XV). The presence
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
6

7. of haloes is a continuation of a
Byzantine artistic convention that has
lost its religious significance and simply
serves to emphasise the heads.
Another miniature in the same
manuscript shows the second author
from whose works this compilation was
formed, namely Aristotle. And in this
painting (fig. XVI) we see him, at right,
giving instruction to Alexander the
Great, with a text open on a stand
between them. Again, this miniature is
really Byzantine art in Islamic dress.
The dark face and arm of Aristotle are
probably not intentional but due to
corrosion of the pigment employed by
the unnamed illustrator.
A rare copy of an Arabic treatise on
military devices said to be based on the
authority of Alexander the Great is also
in the British Library’s collection.It is
stated that the treatise was found in an
Alexandrian subterranean vault,
between two stone covers, and that it
was translated from the Greek into
Arabic. The copy in the British Library
is undated, but was probably produced
in Egypt in the sixteenth or seventeenth
century. It contains a number of
illustrations, many of them of
waterlifting devices illustrating the
concluding section on agricultural
machinery, one of which is shown in
fig. XVII. Its actual historical association
with Alexander the Great is
questionable, but it is a text that
deserves further study from the
standpoint of Hellenistic and medieval
Islamic technology.
Alexander the Great also came to be
associated with tales of adventures that
are known as the Alexander Romance.
They are ultimately based on a Greek
account of his life and deeds that was
formed in Alexandria between the third
| xv | Physician and patron
Miniature depicting ºUbayd Allåh
ibn JibråΩil ibn Bakhtîshûº in
conversation with his patron, the
prince (amir) Saºd al-Dîn. From
Naºt al-∑ayawån wa-manåfiºuhu
(“The Description and Uses of
Animals”) compiled from works
by Aristotle and ºUbayd Allåh ibn
Bakhtîshûº (d. after 1058/450H).
The undated copy was probably
made in Baghdad in the first half
of the 13th century.
Or. 2784, fol. 101b
(15.5 x 23.5 cm)
| xvi | Aristotle and
Alexander the Great
Miniature depicting Aristotle
instructing Alexander the Great,
from Naºt al-∑ayawån wa-
manåfiºuhu (“The Description
and Uses of Animals”) compiled
from works by Aristotle and
ºUbayd Alla+h ibn Bakhtîshûº
(d. after 1058/450H). The
undated copy was probably
made in Baghdad in the first half
of the 13th century.
Or. 2784, fol. 96a
(15.5 x 23.5 cm)
| xvii | Waterlifting device
A waterlifting device Kitåb al-hiyal
fî al-∑urûb wa-fat∑ al-madåΩin
wa-∑ifπ al-durûb (“The book of
devices for war, the conquering
of cities, and the maintenance of
roads”) according to Alexander
the Great. Undated, made in
Egypt in the 16th or 17th century.
Add. 14055, fol. 148a [old 150]
(26.7 x 18 cm)
century bc and the third century ad.
This Greek text was then translated into
Latin in the fourth century and probably
about the same time was translated into
Syriac. The Syriac version was
apparently the source for the Arabic and
Persian versions that became enormously
popular, especially in Persian folklore
and literary traditions. Numerous
adventures were related, including the
construction by Alexander, on his way
to China, of an iron and brass wall to
act as a barricade against Gog and
Magog. Such exploits of Alexander
formed the subject of many Persian
miniatures, as, for example, that shown
in fig. XVIII. Here Alexander is shown
with four soldiers watching, from
behind a mountain, a dragon about to
eat two oxskins filled with naphtha
placed by Alexander as a trick to destroy
it. The miniature comes from a copy of
the Persian epic poem the Shâhnâmah by
Firdawsî, written about 1010, in which
Alexander is an exemplary hero, whose
association with Aristotle and accounts
of wisdom and moderation made him
into an ideal wise man and model ruler.
Medicine
Returning from fable back to scientific
expositions, by far the most popular
treatise on regimen was that written by a
Christian physician of Baghdad, Ibn
Buàlân, who in 1049/441H left Baghdad
to travel to Cairo and Constantinople,
finally settling in Antioch where he
became a monk. His Taqwîm al-ùiááah
(“Almanac of Health”) presented
hygiene and dietetics in a tabular
format, and it became very influential in
Europe through its Latin translation,
Tacuinum sanitatis in medicina.
In the course of 40 charts, Ibn Buàlân
presented the properties and uses of 210
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
7

8. plants and animals as well as 70 other
items and procedures useful for
maintaining good health, including the
use of music, the regulation of sleep and
exercise, bathing, fumigations, the
alteration of air quality, and seasonal
changes. The treatise frequently had a
circular table of contents, an example
of which can be seen in fig. XVIII, a guide
to the location of the 40 charts, some of
which had multiple parts. Borders and
grounds of interlocking plaits painted in
red, green, and blue watercolours are
distinctive features of this manuscript.
It was made as a presentation volume to
al-Malik al-Üâhir Ghiyâth al-Dîn Ghâzî,
the son of Saladin and the ruler of
Aleppo from 1186 to 1216, and the title
page with the dedication can be seen in
fig. 18A. The copy was executed in
November 1213 (Jumâdá II 610H) by the
copyist ¿Abd Allâh ibn Muáâsin al-
Hâshimî of Aleppo.
Another important medical treatise is
shown in fig. XIX, the Aqrâbâdhîn
Madîinat al-Salam (“The Medical
Formulary of Baghdad”) by Ibn al-
Tilmîdh, a physician at the Aèudî
hospital in Baghdad who died in
560/1165/560H. This beautifully written
copy was made in Baghdad, and the
format of its lovely title page is unusual.
Not only are the title and author given,
in the large square enclosed in a
decorative gilt frame, but in the smaller
square immediately below and to the
left, the scribe has carefully written his
name (¿Alî ibn Àâlib ibn ¿Alî ibn ¿Alî ibn
¿Alî ibn Áusayn al-Áalabî (of Aleppo)
and dated it 625H (1227-8).
The most influential of all Arabic
medical encyclopaedias was “The Canon
of Medicine” (Kitâb al-Qânûn fî al-àibb)
by Ibn Sînâ (d. 1037/430H), known to
Europeans as Avicenna. It was
composed over a lengthy period of time
| xviii | The ºAlmanac
of HealthΩ
The beginning of the Taqwîm
al-±i∑∑ah (“Almanac of Health”)
by Ibn BuØlån, with the circular
table of contents on the left. The
copy was made in November
1213 (Jumådá II 610h) as a
presentation copy to al-Malik al-
∏åhir Ghiyåth al-Dîn Ghåzî, the
son of Saladin and the ruler of
Aleppo from 1186 to 1216.
Or. 1347, fols. 2b-3a
(32.2 x 23.8 cm)
| 18a | Title page of
ºAlmanac of HealthΩ
The title page and dedication
panel from the Taqwîm al-±i∑∑ah
(“Almanac of Health”) by Ibn
BuØlån. The copy was made in
November 1213 (Jumådá II
610h) as a presentation copy to
al-Malik al-∏åhir Ghiyåth al-Dîn
Ghåzî, the son of Saladin and the
ruler of Aleppo from 1186 to 1216.
Or. 1347, fol. 1a
(32.2 x 23.8 cm)
| xix | Medical formulary
Title page from the Aqråbådhîn
Madîinat al-Salam (“The Medical
Formulary of Baghdad”) by Ibn
al-Tilmîdh (d. 1165/H). The copy
was made in Baghdad in
1227/625H.
Or. 8293, fol. 2a (19.7 x 14.5 cm)
as he moved westward from Gurgân, in
northern Iran, where it was begun, to
Rayy (near modern Tehran) and then to
Hamadân even further southwest, where
he completed it. He divided the
compendium into five books: (1) general
medical principles, (2) materia medica,
(3) diseases occurring in a particular part
of the body, (4) diseases such as fevers
that are not specific to one bodily part,
and (5) recipes for compound drugs.
Avicenna’s attempt at collecting and
systematising the rather unorganised
Hellenistic and Byzantine medical
literature was enormously successful in
producing a coherent and orderly
medical system, and its title “the Canon”
emphasised its authoritative nature.
The Canon was known to Europeans
through the Latin translations of Gerard
of Cremona and Andrea Alpago and
remained in use in medical schools at
Louvain and Montpellier until the
seventeenth century. Just as Greek
medical teaching served as a common
intellectual framework for professional
medical practice in the Islamic Near
East, so Arabic medical literature,
through Latin translations, provided late
medieval Europe with ideas and
practices from which early modern
medicine eventually arose. The example
chosen from the British Library
collection (fig. XX) has illuminated
headpieces for each of the five books,
and the opening pages have borders
painted in a delicate floral design. The
volume is a fine example of Safavid
Persian illumination techniques of the
mid-seventeenth century.
Astronomy
Turning to astronomy, another area in
which Islamic scholars made significant
contributions, the major treatise on
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
8

9. constellation iconography from the
Islamic period was that composed by
¿Abd al-Raámân ibn ¿Umar al-Ùûfî
(d. 983/372H), a court astronomer in
Isfahan. The Arabic treatise Kitâb Ùuwar
al-kawâkib al-thâbitah (“Book of the
Constellations of the Fixed Stars”)
covered each of the forty-eight classical
constellations (as outlined by Ptolemy in
the Almagest). Two drawings were given
for each constellation, one showing it as
seen in the sky by an observer on earth
and the other as seen on a celestial
globe, which is to say, reversed right to
left. In addition to the drawings for each
constellation, there was an account of
the traditional Bedouin star names and
asterisms for that portion of the sky and
a listing of the stars, giving celestial
latitudes, longitudes, and magnitudes.
Fig. XXI shows the constellation
Cassiopeia (called in Arabic “She
Having a Throne”), with the
constellation as seen in the sky on the
left and, on the right, as oriented on a
celestial globe. The Greek mythological
prototypes for these constellations have
been transformed, with the garments,
styles of coiffures, jewellery, etc,
changed to conform to the local customs
and artistic conventions at the time and
place of production. The copy in the
British Library, though undated, is a
very fine thirteenth or fourteenth-
century product.
Abû al-Rayáân al-Bîrûnî (d. 1048/440H),
a contemporary of Avicenna, worked in
the eastern provinces and was one of the
most original of medieval scholars,
making important contributions to a
number of fields. Although his first
language was Persian, he wrote in
Arabic and he also learned Sanskrit,
which enabled him to make use of
Indian sources. About the year
1035/426H, he composed one of the most
important astronomical treatises, which
| xx | Avicenna’s ºCanon of
MedicineΩ
The illuminated headpiece and
opening pages with floral borders
of a copy of al-Qånûn fî al-Øibb
(“The Canon of Medicine”) by
Ibn Sînå, known to Europeans as
Avicenna. The copy was made in
Persia in 1659/1069H.
Or. 5033, fols. 15b-16a
(36 x 30.7 cm)
| 20a | Section heading in
the ºCanon of MedicineΩ
The illuminated headpiece
beginning Book 3 of a copy of
al-Qånûn fî al-Øibb (“The Canon
of Medicine”) by Ibn Sînå, known
to Europeans as Avicenna.
The copy was made in Persia in
1659/1069H.
Or. 5033, fol. 202b(36 x 30.7 cm)
| xxi | The constellation
Cassiopeia
The constellation of Cassiopeia,
shown as positioned in the sky
(left) and on a celestial globe
(right). From a copy of the Kitåb
∞uwar al-kawåkib al-thåbitah
(“Book of the Constellations of
the Fixed Stars”) by Abd
al-Ra∑mån ibn ºUmar al-∞ûfî
(d. 983/372H). Undated copy,
probably 13th or 14th century.
Or. 5323, fol. 19a (33.5 x 23.5 cm)
| xxii | Bîrûnî’s
astronomical compendium
A chapter discussing the
determination of latitude given
the length of day and night, from
Book (maqålah) 4 of al-Qånûun
al-Masºûdî (“The Canon Dedicated
to Masºûd”) by al-Bîrûnî
(d. 1048/440H). The copy was
made in Baghdad in 1174/570H
and corrected the following year
by comparing it with the original.
Or. 1997, fol. 82a (33.2 x 22.5 cm)
he titled al-Qânûun al-Mas¿ûdî (“The
Canon Dedicated to Mas¿ûd”). Very few
complete copies of this important
treatise survive, but the British Library
has an important, early, and complete
copy. It was transcribed in Baghdad in
October-November 1174 (Rabî¿ I 570H),
and in the following year, 571/1175h, it
was compared with and corrected
against the original treatise (presumably
in the handwriting of al-Bîrûnî). The
illustration (fig. XXII) is from the fourth
of the eleven books comprising the
treatise, and it shows, just before the
start of the seventeenth chapter,
diagrams illustrating the determination
of geographical latitude given the length
of the day and night. There are seven
diagrams, one for each of the climes into
which the astronomer Ptolemy divided
the inhabited world. Each “clime” (or
“climate”) was determined by the
number of hours in the longest day,
which in turn was dependent upon
latitude.
Amongst al-Bîrûnî’s other treatises is
one concerned with the construction of
various types of astrolabes and related
instruments, which he titled Isti¿âb al-
wujûh al-mumkina fî ùin¿at al-asàurlâb
(“The Exhaustion of All Possible
Methods of Contructing an Astrolabe”).
Here are found detailed designs for a
geared astronomical clock which he
called the “Box of the Moon”. One of
the diagrams for its construction is
shown in fig. XXIII. The four lines
written in the lower portion of the disc
read: “Any arc or tooth drawn in black
is visible; anything drawn in red is below
the disc, as if it were seen from below
the illustration.” The British Library
copy of this treatise is one of only three
recorded copies.
This geared astronomical clock
described by al-Bîrûnî suggests that
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
9

10. earlier technological practices of
producing geared calendars (such as are
evidenced by the famous Antikythera
mechanism from the 1st century bc and
now preserved in the National Museum,
Athens, and four fragments of a portable
sundial with calendrical gearing of the
Late Antique or Early Byzantine period
now in the Science Museum in London)
passed to the Islamic world, and that
Islamic scholars further developed the
designs in an attempt to improve
accuracy.
In 1029/420H, al-Bîrûnî also composed a
comprehensive treatise on astrology,
Kitâb al-Tafhîim li-awâ¿il ùinâ¿at al-
tanjîm (“Book of Instruction on the
Principles of the Art of Astrology”). It
summarised all the available non-
mathematical information regarding the
heavens and their relationship with the
earth, and it included a discussion of the
seas and their relationship to landmasses
on the earth, illustrated by a map.
Fig. XXIV-X shows such a map occurring
| xxiii | Geared
astronomical clock
A diagram for the “Box of the
Moon”, a geared astronomical
clock, from Istiºåb al-wujûh
al-mumkina fî ±inºat al-asØurlåb
(“The Exhaustion of All Possible
Methods of Constructing an
Astrolabe”) by al-Bîrûnî
(d. 1048/440H).
The copy is undated, probably of
the 14th century.
Or. 5593, fol. 83b (23.4 x 15 cm)
| xxiv | Bîrûnî’s sketch
of landmasses
A sketch map of the world from
the treatise on astrology, Kitåb
al-Tafhîm li-awåΩil ±inåºat al-tanjîm
(“Book of Instruction on the
Principles of the Art of
Astrology”) by al-Bîrûnî
(d. 1048/440H). The treatise was
written in 1029/420H, and this
copy was before 1435/839H.
The page shown here, however,
is one of 3 replacement leaves
made slightly later than the rest
of the volume.
Or. 8349, fol. 58a (22.8 x 14 cm)
in a copy of the treatise made sometime
before 1435/839H, when an owner’s note
was carefully written on the title page.
The folio containing the map, however,
is one of three replacement leaves made
slightly later than the rest of the volume.
A labelled drawing is shown in fig. XXIV.
It is notable that Africa does not extend
eastward towards China, filling most of
the southern hemisphere as was typical
of world maps at this time. That idea
had been inherited from the astronomer
and geographer Ptolemy but apparently
was rejected by al-Bîrûnî, for here Africa
is so reduced that the Indian Ocean fills
most of the southern hemisphere.
Geography and Cosmology
There were several approaches to
terrestrial mapping in the medieval
Islamic world. One set of maps in
concept and design can be traced back
to a tenth-century geographer named
Abû Zayd Aámad ibn Sahl al-Balkhî
(d. 934/322H). He wrote a geographical
description of the Islamic world in
which he defined the provinces in
political or cultural boundaries, not by
the “climes” determined by latitude as
Ptolemy and others had done. His
treatise was accompanied by 23 regional
maps and a world map, but no copies
are preserved today. However, the
derivative treatises of three other tenth-
century geographers have survived and
together form what scholars call the
“Balkhî school of geographers”, all of
whose maps are very stylised and
abstract.
The earliest of the three members of the
Balkhî school is al-Iùàakhrî, who died in
951/340H. His treatise Kitâb al-Masâlik
wa-al-mamâlik (“Book of Routes and
Provinces”) was illustrated with a world
map and 21 regional maps, an example
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
10
| xxiv | Labelled sketch
The Is
landsof Zanj
[includesCeylon]
India
Makrån
China
East Surrounding Sea
Fars [Persia]
The Sea of Jurjån
[= Cas
pian]
Alexandria
Syria
The Sea of Warank
[= Baltic]
Cons
tantinople
North SurroundingSea
The Islands of Dîbajåt
[= the Laccadivesand Maldives
]
Oman
P
ers
ian Gulf
Qulzum
[= R
ed S
ea]
Arabia
“Mtns
. Of the Moon”
[= s
ource of Nile]
Des
ertsof the Sudan
The Maghreb [North Africa]
Sea of Syria [= Mediterranean]
al-Zuqåq [= S
traitsof Gilbraltar]
Sea of P
ontus[= Black S
ea]
al-Andalus[S
pain]

11. of which is shown in fig. XXV. This
regional map of Egypt is from an
undated copy probably made in the
nineteenth century by a copyist named
Ibrâhîm ibn Aámad from an older copy
made in 1472/878H. In this map, south is
at the top, and the Mediterranean is the
rectangle at the bottom. The small
square at the lower right is labelled as
Alexandria, with the delta settlements of
Tinnîs (a town then famous for its
textiles but now vanished) and Damietta
in the semicircle at the mouth of the
Nile. The two small gilt triangles
indicate the pyramids.
Related to maps of the Balkhî school is a
world map which occurs in copies of a
treatise on geography and natural
history titled Kharîdat al-¿ajâ¡ib wa-
farîdat al-gharâ¡ib (“The Unbored Pearl
of Wonders and the Precious Gem of
Marvels”). The British Library has two
copies of the treatise, one illustrated in
fig. XXVI, with some of the place names
identified in fig. XXVI-X. The copy was
| xxv | Map of Egypt
A regional map of Egypt, from
Kitåb al-Masålik wa-al-mamålik
(“Book of Routes and
Provinces”) by al-I±Øakhrî
(d. 951/340H). South is at the
top, and the Mediterranean is
the rectangle at the bottom.
Alexandria is labelled by the
small square in the lower right,
with the delta settlements of
Damietta and Tinnîs (now
vanished) in the semicircle at
the mouth of the Nile. The two
small gilt triangles indicate the
pyramids. The undated copy
was probably made in the 19th
century by a copyist named
Ibråhîm ibn A∑mad from an older
copy made in 1472/878H.
Or. 5305, fol. 18a (35 x 25 cm)
| xxvi | World map
World map from Kharîdat
al-ºajåΩib wa-farîdat al-gharåΩib
(“The Unbored Pearl of
Wonders and the Precious Gem
of Marvels”), falsely attributed
to Ibn al-Wardî. The copy was
made in 1791/1206H.
Add. 9590, fols. 3b-4r (23 x 31 cm,
full opening;map 22.5 x 21.6 cm)
made in 1791/1206H. The precise author
and date of composition are unknown.
It has been incorrectly attributed to
¿Umar ibn MuÜaffar ibn al-Wardî, a
man of letters and poet who died of
plague in Aleppo in 1349/749 as well as
to others named Ibn al-Wardî, such as
Sirâj al-Dîn Abû áafù ¿Umar ibn al-
Wardî, a religious scholar who died in
1457/861. At this point, however, the
authorship remains uncertain.
In this world map (see fig. XXVI-X),
south is again at the top. The inhabited
portion of the world is circular and
surrounded by the “encompassing sea”
represented by a blue ring. Two seas
(with straight parallel shores) approach
the centre: from the East (left) the Indian
Ocean, and from the West (right) the
Mediterranean. Near the centre is the
Arabian Peninsula, drawn as a
semicircle. Practically the entire southern
(top) quadrant of earth is shown covered
with land; this is the eastward extension
of Africa, with the “Mountains of the
Moon” from which the Nile was said to
arise. The Nile then flows due west and
makes a right-angle turn to the north to
enter the south-west corner of the
Mediterranean.
Two thirteenth-century treatises, one on
geography and another on cosmography,
were to prove very popular with
illustrators. Both treatises were composed
by the same scholar, Zakarîyâ¿ ibn
Muáammad al-Qazwînî (d. 1283/682H).
Originally from Qazwîn in Persia, he
traveled and worked in Syria and Iraq,
dedicating his cosmography to the
governor of Baghdad.
The geographical dictionary was titled
âthâr al-bilâd wa-akhbâr al-¿ibâd
(“Monuments of Places and the History
of God’s Bondsmen”). It was based
largely upon copious reading, but in
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
11
“the encirclingocean”
“Mountainsof the Moon”
[= s
ource of Nile]
Indian Ocean
Tibet
China
India
Cas
pian Sea
Aral Sea
[land of] Gogand Magog
“Mountain of Qåf”
[imaginarymountain s
urrounding
the encirclingocean]
“Mountain of Qåf”
[imaginarymountain s
urrounding
the encirclingocean]
Nile River
Nile Delta
Egypt
North Africa
The Mediterranean
al-Andalus
[S
pain]
Syria
Cons
tantinople
“land of the ∞aqålibah
[S
lavs
]”
| xxvi | Labelled world map
SOUTH
W EST
EAST
NORTH

12. places does reflect his own experiences.
The material was arranged according to
the seven classical “climes”, within
which the localities were discussed
alphabetically. In the discussion of
Egypt, which occurs in the third clime,
al-Qazwînî described the lighthouse at
Alexandria and provided an illustration
of it (see fig. XXVII), which bears the
inscription, written in red ink, “This is
the form of the lighthouse remaining
today”. The manuscript from which this
illustration is reproduced is an especially
important copy of the treatise, for in the
colophon (reproduced in fig. 27A) the
copyist named Muáammad Mas¿ûd ibn
Muáammad al-Hamdânî states that he
completed the copy in 1329/729 and that
he transcribed it from a copy in the
handwriting of the author dated
1275/674H.
Even more popular with illustrators
than his geographical dictionary was al-
Qazwînî¡s cosmography, titled (¿Ajâ¡ib
al-makhlûqât wa-gharâ¡ib al-mawjûdât
(“Wonders of Things Created and
Marvels of Things Existing”). It covered
all the wonders of the world, and the
variety of subject matter (humans and
their anatomy, plants, animals, strange
creatures living at the edges of the
inhabited world, constellations of stars,
zodiacal signs, angels, and demons)
provided great scope for the artist.
The British Library has an important
early copy of al-Qazwînî’s cosmography
which is unfortunately in a fragile state,
but which has been well conserved (fig.
XXVIII). The copy is undated, but it has
been demonstrated that the manuscript
was made and illustrated very early in
the fourteenth century, probably
between 1305 and 1315, making it the
second oldest preserved copy of the
treatise (the oldest copy was made about
1280 during the author’s lifetime and is
| xxvii | The lighthouse of
Alexandria
The lighthouse at Alexandria
“as it remains now”, from a copy
of ÅthÅr al-bilÅd wa-akhbÅr
al-ºibåd (“Monuments of Places
and the History of God’s
Bondsmen”) by al-Qazwînî
(d. 1283/682H). The copy was
made in 1329/729h from a copy
in the handwriting of the author
dated 1275/674H.
Or. 3623, fol. 41b (34 x 22.5 cm)
| 27a | Important
annotations
The illuminated colophon stating
that this copy of Åthår al-bilåd
wa-akhbår al-ºibåd (“Monuments
of Places and the History of
God’s Bondsmen”) by al-Qazwînî
(d. 1283/682H) was transcribed
in 1329/729h from a copy in the
handwriting of the author dated
1275/674h. There are also six
later owners’s notes written
at the end of the 16th century
(988-997H).
Or. 3623, fol. 173a
(34 x 22.5 cm)
| xxviii | Three trees
Three plants from ºAjåΩib
al-makhlûqåt wa-gharåΩib
al-mawjûdåt (“Wonders of
Things Created and Marvels of
Things Existing”) by al-Qazwînî
(d. 1283/682H). The copy is
undated but appears to have
been made about 1305-1315,
probably in Mosul in Iraq. The
trees illustrated (top to bottom)
are the “milkweed tree” (ºushar),
the oak tree with gallnuts (ºaf±),
and the jujube tree (ºunnåb).
Or. 14140, fol. 85a
(30.3 x 20.3 cm)
now in Munich). The British Librarys
copy contains numerous illustrations
that are stylistically in keeping with
products of Mosul in Iraq at that time.
In fig. XXVIII three plants are illustrated
from the section enumerating trees in
alphabetical order (according to the
Arabic alphabet). At the top is ¿ushar, a
species of tree or shrub growing in hot
countries which has broad leaves and a
sweet gum or sap producing a type of
sugar. The middle plant is called ¿afù, or
gallnut, which it says grows on oak
trees, and gallnuts were used for making
ink as well as for treating haemorrhoids
and other ailments. The lower
illustration shows ¿ubbâb, the jujube
tree, famous from many legends, whose
leaves were (according to al-Qazwînî)
useful for pain in the eyes.
Art historians have suggested that the
earliest representations of angels in
Islamic painting are to be found in
manuscripts illustrating al-Qazwînî’s
text, and indeed the miniatures of angels
are often some of the most arresting
paintings in al-Qazwînî manuscripts.
An example is shown in fig. XXIX where
the archangel Gabriel (Jibrâ¡îl) is
illustrated in an undated, probably
sixteenth-century copy. This is a
particularly elegant manuscript, with
numerous paintings and an ornate
illuminated opening page, reproduced
in fig. 29A.
Literature
In the realm of Arabic literature there is
a genre evident from the mid-ninth
century, concerned with the “origins” of
things - that is, the time a custom or
institution first arose and the person first
associated with it. This quasi-historical
literary tradition can be traced back to
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
12

13. Graeco-Roman writings, such as the
Natural History by Pliny (23-79AD) and
the writings of Clement of Alexandria
(late 2nd century). An Arabic example of
the genre (fig. XXX) was composed by
Jalâl al-Dîn al-Suyûàî (d. 1505/911H), one
of the most prolific authors in the whole
of Islamic literature, having composed
561 treatises by the time of his death at
the age of sixty. His effort in this
particular genre he titled al-Wasâ¡il ilá
ma¿rifat al-awâ¡il (“The Means to the
Knowledge of Origins”), and it included
much legendary material typical of such
discussions. For example, it stated that
the first earthquake occurred when Cain
murdered Abel, that taxation was
invented by Moses, and that the first
building constructed on earth was a
temple at Mecca built by Adam at the
command of the archangel Gabriel.
The first man to wear a turban, it
claimed, was Alexander the Great, in
order to hide the two horns that had
become an embarrassment to him. (On
coins, Alexander the Great was often
shown with the ram’s horns associated
with Jupiter Ammon, and knowledge of
this image came through Syriac sources
into Arabic, where the epithet “the two-
horned”, Dhû al-qarnayn, was usually
applied to Alexander.)
What makes the copy of al-Suyûàî’s
treatise shown in fig. XXX particularly
interesting is that the copy appears to
have been transcribed by Qânùawh al-
Ghawrî (or Qânùûh al-Ghûrî), the
penultimate Mamluk sultan of Egypt
who died in battle with the Ottomans in
1516/922H. It is written in a large, bold
script, with only seven lines to each of
its 110 pages. On the illuminated title
page, shown in fig. XXX, the title is
written in the top lozenge and the
authors name in the bottom lozenge. In
the central eight-lobed medallion there is
the following statement: “By order of
| xxix | Title
The archangel Gabriel from
ºAjåΩib al-makhlûqåt wa-gharåΩib
al-mawjûdåt (“Wonders of Things
Created and Marvels of Things
Existing”) by al-Qazwînî (d.
1283/682h). An undated copy,
probably 16th century.
Or. 4701, fol. 39a
(34.5 x 25.3 cm)
| 29a | Sixteenth-century
illuminated opening
The illuminated opening from a
16th-century copy of ºAjåΩib
al-makhlûqåt wa-gharåΩib al-
mawjûdåt (“Wonders of Things
Created and Marvels of Things
Existing”) by al-Qazwînî
(d. 1283/682H).
Or. 4701, fol. 1b (34.5 x 26.2 cm)
| xxx | Mamluk sultan
al-Ghawrî’s book
The illuminated title page from
a copy of Kitåb al-WasåΩil ilá
maºrifat al-awåΩil (“Book of the
Means to the Knowledge of
Origins”) by al-SuyûØî
(d. 1505/911H) which states
in the middle panel that it was
made for the library of the
Mamluk sultan Qån±awh al-
Ghawrî, who died in 1516/922H.
Or. 12012, fol. 1a (27 x 17 cm)
| 30a | Calligraphy by a
Mamluk sultan
Final folio of a copy of Kitåb
al-WasåΩil ilá maºrifat al-awåΩil
(“Book of the Means to the
Knowledge of Origins”) by
al-SuyûØî (d. 1505/911H), where,
in the illuminated colophon, it
says that the copy was
transcribed by the Mamluk sultan
Qån±awh al-Ghawrî, who died
in 1516/922H.
Or. 12012, fol. 55a (27 x 17 cm)
His Eminence, Ruler of the two lands
and the two seas, our lord sultan and
sovereign al-Malik al-Ashraf Abû al-
Naùr Qânùawh al-Ghawrî, may God
perpetuate his rule.” At the end of the
manuscript, however, as shown in fig.
30A, there is an illuminated panel stating
that the manuscript was transcribed by
Qânùawh al-Ghawrî himself. If so, then
we have an example of a ruler who was
concerned with learning the art of
calligraphy, possibly at the same time
that he was serving for sixteen years as
Mamluk ruler of Egypt and occupied
with the military defence of the kingdom
then under severe assault from the
Ottoman Turks.
Another literary genre that had
developed by the tenth century was
called Maqâmah (or in the plural,
maqâmât). It usually consisted of a
collection of stories written in rhymed-
prose (called saj¿ in Arabic) having verse
insertions, with the stories sharing a
common plot-scheme and two constant
figures: the narrator and the
hero/trickster.
The Maqâmât of al-Áarîrî (d. 1122/516H),
a collection of fifty such rhymed-prose
narrations, were an immediate success,
and there are testimonies to people
coming from as far away as Spain to
hear al-Áarîri_ recite his Maqâmât in his
home in Baghdad. His fictional anti-
hero, Abû Zayd al-Sarûjî, is an engaging
rascal who extracts money from his
audience through a series of confidence
tricks, all the while demonstrating great
erudition. Al-Áarîrî’s Maqâmât became
a symbol of Arabic eloquence and
literary style and remains so to this day.
The adventures of its unscrupulous hero
were a favourite subject matter for
illustrators, and extant copies of al-
Áarîrî’s Maqâmât are amongst the finest
examples of Arab painting.
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
13

14. The example shown here (fig. XXXI) is
from an undated copy made about 1300,
probably in Syria. The manuscript has
83 miniatures of which this one
illustrates the forty-fourth episode in
which, on a cold winter’s night, Abû
Zayd and others enjoy a warm fire and
generous hospitality. During the eating
and drinking, Abû Zayd gives a long and
cryptic discourse whose explanation he
promises to provide on the following
morning. In the middle of the night,
however, he secretly leaves the house
without giving any explanation to his
host.
The collection of fables called Kalîlah
wa-Dimnah was and still is enormously
popular. Ultimately of Indian origin, the
title of the collection derives from the
Sanskrit names of the two jackals who
figure in the first story. The core of the
collection was translated into Arabic
around the middle of the eighth century
from a collection written in Middle
Persian (Pahlawî) in the sixth century,
with most of this Middle Persian
collection of fables derived from an
earlier Sanskrit storybook. This core
group consisted of ten frame-stories,
each with sub-stories and sometimes
even sub-sub-stories. Over the centuries
these stories have been copied and
recopied, occasionally with new material
added and often with illustrations to
accompany the moralistic tales. Animals
are the main actors in most of the
stories, but (unlike the Aesop fables)
they speak and behave as humans rather
than stylised animals. The stories
themselves are often interrupted by wise
maxims.
The British Library has a copy, made
probably in the fifteenth century, in
which numerous colourful illustrations
have been added in the margins by
several different artists and owners.
| xxxi | Scene from
∂arîrî’s Maqåmåt
The Maqåmåt of al-∂arîrî,
composed in 1110/503H. This
copy was made about 1300,
probably in Syria. The 44th story
is here illustrated with Abû Zayd
al-Sarûjî and other guests enjoying
hospitality on a winter’s night.
Add. 22114, fol. 149a [old. 155a]
(20.3 x 28 cm)
| 31a | Fable of the
tortoise and the ape
Kalîlah wa-Dimnah, a famous
collection of fables, here open
to the beginning of the tale
“The tortoise and the ape”.
Undated copy, probably made
in the 15th century.
Or. 4044, fol. 90a (27.8 x 18 cm)
| xxxii | The bad points
of a horse
A diagram of the bad points of
a horse, from a Kitåb al-BayØarah
(Treatise on Horses) said to be
by A∑mad ibn ºAtîq al-Azdî, but
in fact identical with one on the
same topic by Abû Yûsuf Yaºqûb
ibn Akhî ∂izåm. The copy was
made in the month of August
1223 (Rajab 620H).
Or. 1523, fols. 62b-63a
(20.8 x 28 cm, full opening)
The example shown here (fig. 31A)
shows the beginning of the tale “The
Tortoise and the Ape”, which is the
fourth original frame-story. The naiveté
of many of the illustrations is charming,
and it is evident that this volume has
been heavily used, much read and well-
loved over the years - typifying the
important place that the Kalîlah wa-
Dimnah fables has had in Arabic
didactic literature.
Horsemanship
Horses, their care and training, were of
great concern in the Middle East, and
this is reflected in two quite different
manuscripts in the British Library. The
first is a treatise on how to distinguish
the good and bad points of a horse, as
well as their ailments and how to treat
them. The copy was made in 1223/620H
and is illustrated with two full-opening
paintings of the good and bad features
of a horse. The latter is shown in fig.
XXXII. In the manuscript the treatise is
said to be by Aámad ibn ¿Atîq al-Azdî,
but in fact it is identical with one on the
same topic written in the ninth century
by Abû Yûsuf Ya¿qûb ibn Akhi Áizâm
which is preserved in other copies,
including one in the British Library.
The second manuscript on the care of
horses is truly an outstanding
masterpiece of manuscript painting and
a fitting piece with which to end this
sampling of Arabic masterpieces in the
British Library. It is a Mamluk treatise
on horsemanship written by the
Damascene authority Muáammad ibn
¿Îsá ibn Ismâ¿îl al-Aqùara¡î (d.
1348/749H). It describes in considerable
detail various exercises and equestrian
games, many of which were performed
before spectators in purpose-built
hippodromes. The presence of Crusaders
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
14

15. from Europe in the Near East at this
time apparently stimulated an interest in
cavalry training and weaponry amongst
the Mamluk rulers of Egypt and Syria.
This copy was made in either Syria or
Egypt by Aámad ibn ¿Umar ibn Aámad
al-Miùrî al-Adamî and completed on 25
July 1371 (10 Muáarram 773H). There
are 18 paintings illustrating the text and
demonstrating the high quality of
ornamentation typical of manuscripts
prepared as presentation copies for
influential persons. The person for
whom this magnificent copy was made,
however, is unknown.
In the first selected illustration
(fig. XXXIII), four riders carrying lances
are depicted cantering round a
hippodrome pool. Written vertically to
the left of the painting is a legend that
reads: “Illustration of a number of
horsemen taking part in a contest, their
lances on their shoulders.” The
composition is very symmetrical, with
even the fish in the pool painted head to
head. Lotus blossoms decorate each
corner of the square pool. The riders are
all beardless, suggesting their
youthfulness.
In the second illustration (fig. XXXIV) a
horseman, also young and wearing a
pigtail, transfixes a bear with a lance. In
the text it states that this is a particular
type of lance, shorter than the standard
one, which is also useful for dealing with
wild animals.
These vivid paintings not only provide
us with evidence for the military
costumes and equipment current in
fourteenth-century Egypt and Syria, but
they are fine examples of medieval
Islamic manuscript art in their own
right. The collection of Arabic
manuscripts in the British Library is so
| xxxiii | Equestrian games
Four riders carrying lances while
cantering round a hippodrome
pool, from a treatise on
horsemanship written by the
Damascene authority
Mu∑ammad ibn ºÎsá ibn Ismåºîl
al-Aq±araΩî (d. 1348/749H). The
copy was made in either Syria or
Egypt by A∑mad ibn ºUmar ibn
A∑mad al-Mi±rî al-Adamî and
completed on 25 July 1371
(10 Mu∑arram 773H).
Add. 18866, fol. 99a (31 x 22 cm)
| xxxiv | Horseman
spearing bear
A horseman spears a bear with
his lance, from a treatise on
horsemanship written by the
Damascene authority
Mu∑ammad ibn ºÎsá ibn Ismåºîl
al-Aq±araΩî (d. 1348/749H). The
copy was made in either Syria or
Egypt by A∑mad ibn ºUmar ibn
A∑mad al-Mi±rî al-Adamî and
completed on 25 July 1371
(10 Mu∑arram 773H).
A
dd. 18866, fol. 113a (31 x 22 cm)
varied and of such quality that a
selection of only 30 volumes was most
difficult, but surely this Mamluk cavalry
manual would by any standards be
considered an Arabic masterpiece of
manuscript production.
Emilie Savage-Smith
From Alexandria to Baghdad and beyond
15

16. Archimedes
On the Cons
truction of Water-Clocks
:
Kitåb Arshimîdas fî amal al-binkamåt, edited and translated
by D.R. Hill London:T
urner & Devereux, 1976
“A Mamlûk Arabic Manuscript”,
The Britis
h Mus
eum Quarterly
, vol. 16 (1951-2), pp. 93-94.
Bosch, Gulnar and Guy Petherbridge
Is
lamic Bindingsand Bookbinding:
A Catalogue of an Exhibition, The Oriental Ins
titute,
The Univers
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Chicago:The Oriental Ins
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Burnett, Charles
The Introduction of Arabic Learninginto England
[The Panizzi Lectures, 1996]
London :The Britis
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, 1997
Carboni, Stefano
“The London Qazwînî : An early 14th-century copy of the
Ajåîb al-makhlûqåt”,
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lamicArt, vol. 3 (1988-9), pp. 15-31.
Déroche, François
The Abbas
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[Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. 1]
L
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Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature
ed. Julie Scott Meisami and Paul Starkey, 2 vols.
London/NewY
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outledge, 1998
Encyclopedia of the His
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ed. Roshdi Rashed, 3 vols.
London/NewY
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Ettinghausen, Richard
Arab Painting
Genev
a:Editionsde’Art Albert S
kira, 1962, 2nd ed. 1977
Field, J
.V., and D.R. Hill, & M.T. W right
Byzantine and Arabic Mathematical Gearing
London :S
cience Mus
eum, 1985
Gutas, Dimitri
Greek Thought, Arabic Culture : The Graeco-Arabic
Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early `Abbåsid
Society (2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries)
London/NewY
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outledge, 1998
Haldane, Duncan
Mamluk Painting
Warmins
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Hill, Donald R.
Islamic Science and Engineering
Edinburgh :Edinburgh Univers
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Hoffman, Eva R.
“The Author Portrait in Thirteenth-Century Arabic Manuscripts :
A New Islamic Context for a Late-Antique Tradition,”
Muqarnas, vol. 10 (1993), pp. 6-20.
J
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The Master Scribes: Qur'ans of the 10th to the 14th centuries AD
[Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. 2]
L
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,andOxford:OxfordUniv
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Maddison, Francis, and Emilie Savage-Smith
Science, Tools & Magic
[Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. 12]
L
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,& Oxford:OxfordUniv
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Nasr, Seyyid Hossein
Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study
London :World of Is
lamicFes
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al Publis
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Safadi, Yasin Hamid
Islamic Calligraphy
London:Thamesand Huds
on, 1978
Safwat, Nabil F.
The Art of the Pen: Calligraphy of the 14th to 20th centuries
[Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. 5]
L
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“Arabic Science and the Greek Legacy”, in From Baghdad to
Barcelona : Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences in Honour
of Prof. Juan Vernet , 2 vols.
(Barcelona, Univers
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Savage-Smith, Emilie
“The Islamic Tradition of Celestial Mapping,”
Asian Art, vol. 5 (1992), pp. 5-27.
Shehadeh, Kamal & Donald R. Hill, & Richard
Lorch,
“Construction of a fluting machine by Apollonius the
Carpenter,” pp. 326-356, vol. 9 (1994)
Zeits
chrift für Ges
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chenWis
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Smith, G. Rex
Medieval Muslim Horsemanship : A fourteenth-century
Arabic cavalry manual
London :The Britis
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, 1979
The Codicology of Islamic Manuscripts:
Proceedings of The Second Conference of al-Furqåan Islamic
Heritage Foundation 4-5 December 1993,
ed. Yasin Dutton
London :al-Furqåan Is
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The History of Cartography
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Islamic and South Asian Societies,
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S
uggested reading
16

17. Arabic Treasures of the British Library
17
Arabic Treasures of the British Library
17
| i | | ii | | 2a | | iii | | 3a | | iv |
| V | | vi | | 6a | | vii | | viii | | 8a | | ix |
| x | | xi | | xii | | xiii | | xiv | | xv |
| xvi | | xvii | | xviii | | 18a | | xix | | xx | | 20a |
| xxi | | xxii | | xxiii | | xxiv | | xxv | | xxvi |
| xxvii | | 27a| | xxviii | | xxix| | 29a | | xxx | | 30a |
| xxxi | | 31a | | xxxii | | xxxiii | | xxxiv |
The Arabic Treasures from the British Library’s
Oriental & India Office collections
Roman numerals ~ Large plates(pages96-128)
Arabic numerals ~ Small illus
trationsonly (pages96-128)