Evaporite Salt Deposits-converted.pptx

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EVAPORITE SALT DEPOSITS
Presentation · October2015
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3231.3203
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Topic 11: EVAPORITE SALT
DEPOSITS Hassan Z. Harraz
hharraz2006@yahoo.com
2015- 2016

Outline of Topic 11:
We will explore all of the above in Topic
11
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
PROCESS OF MINERAL FORMATION BY
EVAPORATION
ENVIRONMENTS FOR EVAPORITE
PRECIPITATION
i) Marine Evaporites
 Barred Basins
ii) Non-marine (or Continental, Inland
lakes) Evaporites
CHEMISTRY OF EVAPORITES
i) Evaporation Sequence of Seawater
ii) Evaporation of Seawater
iii)Rates of Evaporite Deposition
EVAPORATE MINERALS
DIAGENESIS OF EVAPORITES
1) DEPOSITION FROM OCEANIC WATERS:
1)Calcium Sulfate
Deposition 1.2) Salt
(Halite) Deposition
 Salt Domes
1.3) Potash
Deposition
 World Potash Mine Production
 Potash Deposits in Dead Sea
1.4) Borate and Bromine Deposition
2)DEPOSITION FROM CONTINENTAL WATERS
AND INLAND LAKES
1) MAJOR IONS OF INLAND WATERS
2)EVAPORATION SEQUENCE OF INLAND
LAKES
3) DEPOSITION FROM INLAND LAKES
1) Deposition from Salt Lakes
 Salton Sea California
2)Deposition from Alkali (or Soda)
Lakes 2.3.3) Deposition from Bitter
Lakes
 Sulfate lakes
2.3.4) Deposition from Potash
Lakes 2.3.5) Deposition from
Borate Lakes
MODELS FOR EVAPORITE SEDIMENTATION
EVAPORITE FORMATION
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz
Presentation Evaporite

DEFINATION
 Evaporite is a name for a water-soluble mineral sediment (i.e. chemical sediment) that result
originally precipitated from saline (brine) solutions concentrated and crystallization by solar
evaporation from an aqueous solution.
 Evaporite Considered as Inorganic/Chemical Sedimentary Rocktypes:
“Chemical”: derived from the precipitation of dissolved minerals inwater.
“Inorganic”: minerals precipitate because of evaporation and/or chemicalactivity.
 Found in both marine and nonmarine environments:
 There are two types of evaporate deposits:
1)Marine evaporites: which can also be described as ocean or sea waterdeposits
(solutions derived from normal sea water by evaporation are said to be
hypersaline), and
2) Non-marine evaporites: which are found in standing bodies of water suchas
Inland lakes; also groundwater.
 Evaporite deposits that are composed of minerals that originally precipitated from saline (brine)
solutions concentrated by solar evaporation.
 Most evaporites are derived from bodies of Sea-water, but under special conditions, Inland lakes
may also give rise to evaporite deposits, particularly in regions of low rainfall and hightemperature.
The original character of most evaporite deposits has been destroyed by replacement through
circulating fluids.
 Most evaporites are derived from bodies of sea water or a saline inland lake experiences net
evaporation, the concentration of the ions dissolved in that water rises until the saturation pointof
various materials is exceeded, and minerals precipitate orcrystallize.
 Minerals precipitated from “super-saturated” saline water in enclosed basin environments underdry
arid conditions with high evaporation rates (e.g., playa lakes).

1) Buried deposits :
 Evaporite deposits that formed during various
warming Seasonal and climatic change periods of
geologic times.
 Like: Shallow basin with high rate of
evaporation – Gulf of Mexico, Persian Gulf,
ancient Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea
 The most significant known evaporite depositions
happened during the Messinian salinity crisis in the
basin of the Mediterranean
Extracted by Solution mining techniques (or Frasch
Process)
 Two wells
 Selective dissolution
 Hot leaching
Evaporite deposits
2) Brine deposits:
Evaporite deposits that formed from
evaporation:
 Seawater or ocean (Ocean water is
the prime source of minerals formed
by evaporation) . Then, solutions
derived from normal sea water by
evaporation are said to be
hypersaline
 Lake water
 Salt lakes
 Playa lake
 Springs
Extracted by Normal evaporation
techniques
 Pond
 Marsh
Requirements
 • arid environment, high temp
 • low humidity
 • little replenishment from open ocean,or
streams

Ex: Buried deposits
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz PE
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Khewra Salt Mine
 It is Pakistan's largest and oldest salt mine and the world's second largest.
 It is a major tourist attaction, drawing up to 250,000 visitors a year.
 Its history dates back to its discovery by Alexander's troops in 320 BC, but it
started trading in the Mughal era.
 The main tunnel at ground level was developed by Dr. H. Warth, a mining
engineer, in 1872, during British rule.
 The mine comprises nineteen stories, of which eleven are below ground.
 From the entrance, the mine extends about 730 meters (2440 ft) into the
mountains, and the total length of its tunnels is about 40 km (25 miles).
Quarrying is done using the room and pillar method, mining only half of the
salt and leaving the remaining half to support what is above

Pakistan : World's 2nd Largest Salt
Mine, Khewra Salt Mines, Pakistan
Roof of Salt Mine, Khewra,
Pakistan Pillar of Salt Mine, Khewra,
Pakistan
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Ex: Buried deposits

Pakistan : World's 2nd Largest Salt Mine, Khewra Salt Mines, Pakistan
Salt
Lamps
Rock-Salt, Khewra Salt Mines, Pakistan
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Himalayan salt
lamps

Pakistan : World's 2nd Largest Salt Mine, Khewra Salt Mines, Pakistan
Colourful Salt Mosque inside Khewra Salt Mines,
Pakistan
Salt Mosque
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Workers at Lake Afrera process raw salt.
Production was temporarily halted last year
when a volcano in neighboring Eritrea erupted,
blanketing the salt in ash.
Evoking a scene from biblical times, caravans arrive at the salt
mines of Lake Asele, 381 feet below sea level. For centuriessalt
blocks, called a mole, were used throughout Ethiopia as money.
The Salt and the Earth
In Africa's Afar depression, pastoral tribes and salt traders survive amid a surreal
landscape of fissures, faults, and a boiling lake of lava
Lake Asele Caravans, Ethiopia
At a salt-extraction facility in northern Ethiopia, briny water is
pumped from hypersalty Lake Afrera into evaporationponds.
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4 May 1
Maras Salt
Mine
Salt selling, Mopti -
Mali
Ex: Brine deposits:
Presentation

 Shallow basin with high rate of evaporation – Gulf of Mexico, Persian Gulf, ancient Mediterranean
Sea, Red Sea
 The first minerals to form as the water evaporates are carbonates, which we have covered already
under biochemical sedimentary rocks.
 Precipitation sequence from seawater: calcite, anhydrite, gypsum, halite, sylvite withincreasing
evaporation rates.
 They are generally volumetrically minor components of evaporite mineralassemblages.
 Many of these minerals are economically significant, such as gypsum, halite, and potashsalts
from sea water, and epsom salts, borax and trona from saline inlandlakes.
 Playa lake basins between mountain ranges, especially in Basin and RangeProvince.

Deposition of minerals by evaporation is dependent on factors:
1) Solubility contents,
2) Temperature,
3) Pressure,
4) Depositional environment, and
5) Seasonal and climatic changes .
Evaporation proceeds most rapidly in warm, arid climates. In the evaporation of
bodies of saline water, concentration of the soluble salts occurs, and when super-
saturation of any salt is reached, that salt is precipitated.
PROCESS OF MINERAL FORMATION BY EVAPORATION
Requirements
 arid environment, high temp
 low humidity
little replenishment from
open ocean, or streams
Rates of Evaporite
Deposition
 Rates of evaporite deposition are
FAST (compared to other
sediments)
 Subaqueous evaporites may
be deposited at rates
exceeding 10 cm/yr!!
 Compare this to mm/1000 yr
for most sediments.

Evaporation proceeds most rapidly in warm, arid climates. In the
evaporation of bodies of saline water, concentration of the soluble
salts occurs, and when super-saturation of any salt is reached, that
salt is precipitated.
Deposition of minerals by evaporation is dependent on factors:
1) Solubility contents,
2) Temperature,
3) Pressure,
4) Depositional environment, and
5) Seasonal and climatic changes.
PROCESS OF MINERAL FORMATION BY EVAPORATION
The potash and salt deposists
worldwide
Quelle: K+S Käding/Beer
Evaporite Deposits

1) Chemistry of Seawater
 The first step toward looking at evaporites
 Source of evaporites: is seawater
 Ocean water is the prime source of minerals formed by
evaporation.
Dissolved Species - Seawater
NaCl is most abundant because of compostion of seawater:
 Includes all dissolved ions ~34.7 ppt
4
 Most common ions: Cl-, Na+, Mg 2+, SO 2-, Ca2+, K+...
 Trace components: Br, F, B, Sr
 85.65 % Na2+ and Cl- ions
 remaining solutes 14.35%
 About 3.45% of seawater consists of dissolved salts of
which 99.7% by weight is made up of only seven, ions
that are as listed below :-
 These components of seawater can all contribute to
evaporite mineralization.
Na+ 30.61 Cl- 55.04
Mg2+ 3.69 SO 2-
4 7.68
Ca2+ 1.16 HCO3- 0.41
K+ 1.10
CHEMISTRY OF EVAPORITES
Dissolved Species - Rivers
• Main dissolved species
in freshwater is Ca,
CO3 and SiO4
Evaporite Deposits

Evaporation of Seawater
Evaporite Deposits
In terms of volumes of precipitated salts, experiments like that show that if a column of sea
water 1000 m thick is evaporated to dryness, the precipitated salt deposit would be about 17 m
thick.
Of this, 0.6 m would be gypsum, 13.3 m would be halite, and the rest, 2.7 m, would be
mainly salts of potassium and magnesium.
But is this how most evaporite deposits are formed?
1000 m (1 km) of seawater will produce
17 m of evaporites
ppt. sequence controlled by
solubility – least soluble first
0.1 m CaCO3
0.6 m gypsum
13.3 m NaCl
3 m KCl, KMgCl

Evaporite sequence
Evaporite Deposits

Economic importance of evaporites
Evaporites are important economically
because of their mineralogy, their physical
properties in-situ, and their behaviour within
the subsurface.
Evaporite minerals, especially nitrate minerals,
are economically important in Peru and Chile.
Nitrate minerals are often mined for use in the
production on fertilizer and explosives.
Thick halite deposits are expected to
become an important location for the
disposal of nuclear waste because of their
geologic stability, predictable engineering
and physical behaviour, and imperviousness
to groundwater.
Salt Domes: salt formations are famous for
their ability to form diapirs, which produce
ideal locations for trapping petroleum
deposits.
 Evaporite minerals start to precipitate when their concentration in water
reaches such a level that they can no longer exist as solutes.
 The minerals precipitate out of solution in the reverse order of their
solubilities, such that the order of precipitation from sea water is
 Calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
 Gypsum (CaSO4-2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4).
 Halite (i.e. common salt, NaCl)
 Potassium and magnesium salts
 The abundance of rocks formed by seawater precipitation is in the same
order as the precipitation given above. Thus, limestone (calcite) and
dolomite are more common than gypsum, which is more common than
halite, which is more common than potassium and magnesium salts.
 Evaporites can also be easily recrystallized in laboratories in order to
investigate the onditions and characteristics of their formation.
Major groups of evaporite minerals
More than eighty naturally occurring evaporite minerals
have been identified. The intricate equilibrium relationships
among these minerals have been the subject of many studies
over the years.This is a chart that shows minerals
that form the marine evaporite rocks, they are
usually the most common minerals that appear in
this kind of deposit.
Hanksite, Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl, one of the
few minerals that is both a carbonate and
a sulfate
Mineral class
Mineral
name
Chemical
Composition
Rock name
Halites
(or
Chloride
s)
Halite NaCl Halite; rock-salt
Sylvite KCl
Potash Salts
Carnallite KMgCl3 * 6H2O
Kainite KMg(SO4)Cl * 3H2O
Sulfates
Polyhalite K2Ca2Mg(SO4)6 * H2O
Langbeinite K2Mg2(SO4)3
Anhydrate CaSO4 Anhydrate
Gypsum CaSO4 * 2H2O Gypsum
Kieserite MgSO4 * H2O --
Carbonates
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite, Dolostone
Calcite CaCO3 Limestone
Magnesite MgCO3 --

Order of precipitation of common compounds
1) CaCO3 and MgCO3 are the 1st to precipitate
2) CaSO4 precipitates next. Leaving mostly Na and Mg cations
Calcium all precipitated
3) NaSO4 precipitates next leaving mostly the chloride compounds
4) NaCO3 next in order precipitates if any CO3 left
5) MgSO4 precipitates out all that is left is NaCl
6) NaCl saltern is left. These are fairly common (Great Salt Lake)
7) MgCl2 and CaCl2 lakes are rare (Called bitterns Dead Sea).
8) If all water evaporates - bed of salt (NaCl) usually results.
Continental waters (saline lakes) and Inland brine lakes
evaporation:
 Epsomite (MgSO4.7H2O){Epsom salts}
 Borax (Na2B4O7·10H2O or Na2[B4O5(OH)4]·8H2O)
 Trona (NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O)
 Natron (Na2CO2.10H2O)
Precipitation
sequence
EVAPORATION SEQUENCE OF CONTINENTAL WATERS AND
INLAND LAKES

Presentation
4 May 2016
1
Figure 5.25 (a) Schematic cross section showing the important features necessary for the formation of large marine
evaporite sequences. (b) Paragenetic sequence for an evaporite assemblage from typical sea water containing the
ingredients shown in the left hand column. The amount of sea water (per 1000 liter volume) that has to evaporate in order
to consecutively precipitate the observed sequence of mineral salts is shown by the curve adjacent to the paragenetic
sequence (diagrams modified after Guilbert and Park, 1986).

Volume of
water
remaining
Evaporite Precipitated
50%
At this point, minor carbonates
begin to form.
A little iron oxide and some
aragonite
are precipitated.
Minor quantities of carbonate
minerals (Calcite and dolomite)
form.
a) Calcite(CaCO3):
 Precipitates if < 50% of seawater is removed. The
fir
 Only accounts for a small % of the total solids
20%
Gypsum precipitates:
Gypsum (<42°C) or Anhydrite (>42°C).
b) Gypsum:
 Precipitates if 80-90% of seawater has beenremoved
 Solution is denser
10% Rock salt (halite) precipitates
c) Halite:
 Precipitates if 86-94% of original seawater hasbeen
removed
 Brine (solution) is very dense
 The deposition of salt beds provides the source for
about three-fourths of all salt used.
5%
Mg & K salts precipitate
Precipitation of various
magnesium sulfates and
chlorides, and finally to NaBr
and KCl.
Potassium and magnesium
salts (kainite, carnallite,
sylvite)
d) Potassic salts:
 Precipitate if > 94 % of original seawater has been
removed
 So: ionic strength (potential) of evaporating seawater
has a strong control over minerals that form.
 After the deposition of common salt, chlorides and
sulfates of magnesium and potassium are the other
chief salts deposited. The potassium minerals result
from evaporation carried almost to completion and,
therefore, only rarely are they deposited.
2) Evaporation Sequence of Seawater
Increasing
Evaporation
Rates
st phase
Decreasing
order
of
solubility

Fig.9. Rock salt crust mined from the lake bed
Evaporite Deposits
Back in 1849 an Italian chemist named Usiglio made a classic, widely cited, but somewhat misleading experiment on
evaporite deposition. He took a volume of normal sea water and slowly evaporated it, and kept track of the
composition and mass of precipitated salts as a function of extent of evaporation.
 An ideal evaporite sequence (in decreasing order of solubility) is as follows:
 Type 1: Potassium and magnesium salts (kainite, carnallite, sylvite).
 Type 2: Rock salt (halite).
 Type 3: Gypsum (<42°C) or anhydrite (>42°C).
 Type 4: Calcite and dolomite.
 As evaporite beds of types 1 and 2 consist of highly soluble minerals, they are commonly re-dissolved by the influx of
new salt-
water. To be preserved, they must be covered over quickly by an impervious layer.
 Since sea-water only contains 31 parts per thousand of dissolved salts, even evaporation of large areas of sea-
water will only result in the deposition of a thin evaporite layer. For thick, economically viable evaporite layers to be
deposited, a continuous evaporation-replenishment system must operate.

Carnallite
Sylvite
Evaporite Deposits

Calcium Sulfate
Deposition
Calcium sulfate may be deposited either in
the form of gypsum (<42°C) or anhydrite
(>42°C), depending upon the temperature,
pressure, and salinity of the solution.
Occurs as part of the evaporite succession
(Sequence of formation of evaporites:
Calcite dolomite gypsum halite
sylvite Mg – salts).
The first salts to separate by the
evaporation of seawater are carbonates.
When the water has been evaporated to
about 20% of its original volume, calcium
sulfate starts to separate. At the temperatures
of evaporation of marine basins, much
gypsum will always be deposited first if the
temperature is <42°C, and that marine beds
of pure anhydrite imply either that the early
deposited gypsum was converted to
anhydrite or that deposition occurred above
the conversion temperature of >42°C.
 Equilibrium temperature for the
reaction CaSO4*2H2O CaSO4 +
2H2O(Liq.Sol.)
is a function of activity of H2O of the solution.
 Anhydrite can be hydrated back to
gypsum upon uplift and exposure to
low-salinity surface waters.
Resulting Products.
 Calcium sulfate deposition occurs
in:1) Beds of relatively pure gypsum or
anhydrite from a few meters to
many hundreds of meters in
thickness (gypsum beds constitute
one of the most important
nonmetallic resources and
anhydrite finds little use);
2) Gypsum beds with impurities of
anhydrite;
3) Alabaster, massive fine-grained
white or lightly tinted variety of
gypsum and
4) Gypsite, an admixture with dirt.
5) The beds are generally
interstratified with limestone or
shale, and they are commonly
associated with salt.
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Gypsum Uses:
 Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4·2H2O).
 Gypsum is used in a wide variety of applications:
 Gypsum board is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings, and is known in construction as
drywall, sheetrock or plasterboard.
 Gypsum blocks used like cement blocks in building construction.
 Plaster ingredient (surgical splints, casting moulds, modeling)
 Plaster of Paris: heated form of gypsum used for casts, plasterboard, …etc.
 Alabaster: ornamental stone
 As alabaster, a material for sculpture, especially in the ancient world before steel was developed,
when its relative softness made it much easier to carve.
 A binder in fast-dry tennis court clay
 Adding hardness to water used for brewing
 Used in baking as a dough conditioner, reducing stickiness, and as a baked-goods source of dietary
calcium. The primary component of mineral yeast food.
 A component of Portland cement used to prevent flash setting of concrete
 Soil/water potential monitoring (soil moisture)
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Gypsum
CaSO4 · 2H 2O
S.G. 2.312 -
2.322
Hardness 2
Color Colorless to white,
often tinged other hues due to
impurities; colorless in transmitted
light.
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Compared between Evaporation Sequence of Seawater and Lakes
Lakes Seawater
1) Calcite (CaCO3) and Magnesite(MgCO3)
The
first
phas
e
1) Carbonates:
 Precipitates if < 50% of seawater is removed.
 At this point, minor carbonates begin to form.
 A little iron oxide and some
aragonite are precipitated.
 Minor quantities of carbonate minerals (Calcite
and dolomite) form.
 Only accounts for a small % of the total solids
2) Gypsum (CaSO4 *2H2O) precipitates next.
ation
Rates
y
2) Calcium Sulfate .
 Precipitates if 80-90% of seawater hasbeen
removed
 Solution is denser
 Gypsum (<42°C) or Anhydrite (>42°C).
3)Na2CO3 (in form of Trona and Natron) next
in order precipitates if any CO3 left
4)Na2SO4 (in form Hanksite
[Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl]) precipitates next
leaving mostly the chloride compounds
5)MgSO4 (in form of Epsom salts) precipitates
out all that is left is NaCl
Increasing
Evapor
asing
order
of
solubilit
6) NaCl saltern is left. These are fairlycommon
(Great Salt Lake)
Decr
e
3) Rock salt (halite)
 Precipitates if 86-94% of original seawater hasbeen
removed
 Brine (solution) is very dense
7)MgCl2 and CaCl2 lakes are rare (Called
Bitterns Dead Sea).
8) If all water evaporates - bed of salt(NaCPrlo)f.Dr.
usually results.
H.Z. Harraz
Pr
vaporite
4) Potassic and Magnesium salts:
 Precipitate if > 94 % of original seawater has been
esentarteiomnoved.
i
ts So: ionic strength (potential) of evaporating seawater
has a strong control over minerals that form.

Continental waters (saline lakes) and Inland brine lakes
evaporation:
 Epsomite {or Epsom salts} (MgSO4.7H2O
 Borax (Na2B4O7·10H2O or Na2[B4O5(OH)4]·8H2O)
 Nahcolite (NaHCO3)
 Trona (NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O)
 Natron (Na2CO2.10H2O)
Order of precipitation of common compounds
1) CaCO3 and MgCO3 are the 1st toprecipitate
2) CaSO4 precipitates next (Calcium all precipitated). Leaving mostly Na and Mg cations
3) (Na2CO3) next in order precipitates if any CO3 left
4) (Na2SO4) precipitates next leaving mostly the chloride compounds
5) MgSO4 precipitates out all that is left isNaCl
6) NaCl saltern is left. These are fairly common (Great Salt Lake)
7) MgCl2 and CaCl2 lakes are rare (Called Bitterns Dead Sea).
8) If all water evaporates - bed of salt (NaCl) usually results.
Precipitation
sequence
EVAPORATION SEQUENCE OF CONTINENTAL WATERS AND INLAND LAKES
Presentation Evaporite
Deposits

Evaporite Deposits

Salt extraction technologies
Today, there are three methods used to produce dry salt based on the method of recovery (Abu- Khader,2006).
(a) Underground mining: Also known as rock salt mining, this process involves conventional mining of the
underground deposits through drilling and blasting whereby solid rock salt is removed. Miningis carried out
at depths between 100 m to more than 1500 m below thesurface.
(b) Solar evaporation method: This method involves extraction of salt from oceans and saline water bodies by
evaporation of water in solar ponds leaving salt crystals which are then harvested using mechanical means.
Solar and wind energy is used in the evaporation process. The method is used in regions where the
evaporation rate exceeds the precipitationrate.
(c) Solution mining: Evaporated or refined salt is produced through solution mining of underground deposits.
The saline brine is pumped to the surface where water is evaporated using mechanical means such as steam-
powered multiple effect or electric powered vapour compression evaporators. In the process, a thick slurry
of brine and salt crystals is formed.
More than one third of the salt production worldwide is produced by solar evaporation of sea water or inland
brines (Sedivy, 2009). In the salt crystallization plants, saturated brine or rock salt and solar salt can be used asa
raw material for the process. A summary of the possible process routes for the production of crystallized salt
based on rock salt deposits is shown in Fig.2. Processes that are used in the production of vacuum salt from sea
water or lake brine as a raw material are shown in Fig.3.
Presentation
04-May-
16

1) Technology of the Salt (NaCl) Production
Fig.2. Processes for production of crystallized salt based on
rock salt deposits (Westphal et al., 2010)
Fig.3. Processes for salt production from brine (Westphal
et al., 2010)
Presentation
04-May-
16

4 May
2016
Presentation
31
Clean washing
salt

DEPOSITION FROM CONTINENTAL WATERS AND
INLAND LAKES
1) Deposition from Salt Lakes
 The deposits formed from the evaporation of salt lakes are
similar to those obtained from ocean water.
 The relatively small size of lakes, however, makes them
more responsive to climate changes, with the result that
they exhibit greater fluctuations of deposition.
 Evaporites formed during periods of desiccation may be re-
dissolved during subsequent periods of scansion.
 Moreover, lakes constantly receive new supplies of fresh water,
salts, and also sediments.
 The resulting saline deposits, therefore, are generally thin-
bedded alternations of impure salts and clays.
 Also, on salt playas, desert winds distribute sands and silt,
upon
which later salts may be deposited during subsequent lake
periods.
 This also gives alternations of salines with sand, clay and
minor calcium carbonate.
Presentation

Brines form by strong
evaporation. These ponds on
the shores of Great Salt Lake
are sources of magnesium as
well as salt.
Prof. Dr.
4 May 2016 Nonmetallic Deposits

Salt Lakes
Seasonal flooding in arid areas produces short-lived lakes
• Groundwater springs
• evaporation concentrates brine
• e.g. Salt Lake, Utah
Depositional Model
Dry mudflats - crusts
Saline mudflats - saltpan deposits
Evaporites form when lake dries up – usually forming ‘Bulls
Eye’ pattern of deposits
 least soluble ppt first
 most soluble last
Prof. Dr.

Salton Sea California
Three kinds of sodium lakes
 Salterns - rich in sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Saline lakes - rich in sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
 Soda lakes - rich in sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Soda lakes have enormous phytoplankton populations
not so with other sodium rich lakes
Prof. Dr. H.E
Zv
a
.
p o rite D ep os its

2) Deposition from Alkali (or Soda) Lakes
 Alkali (or Soda) lakes is lake rich in sodium compounds.
 In alkali or soda lakes sodium carbonate predominates,
potassium carbonate may be abundant, and common salt is
always present.
 Source materials: Most of the sodium carbonate has been derived
directly by decomposition of volcanic rocks, but some is also formed
by slow and complex chemical reactions with other sodium and
calcium salts; it may be formed also by the action of algae on
sodium sulfate.
 The potassium carbonate is considered to be the indirect product
of the work of organisms.
 Example: Owens and Mono Lakes in California, the Soda Lakes of
Nevada, and the Natron Lakes of Egypt.
 The Natron Lakes of Egypt are alternately wet and dry, and
evaporation leaves a layer of natron and salt, bordered by sodium
carbonate.
Note:
In arid regions- precipitates of carbonate combined
with sodium are found commonly called natron
and trona
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

3) Deposition from Bitter (or Sulfate ) Lakes
Bittern results when water evaporates and most salts
have crystalized and precipitated.
The liquid that remains is called bittern and contains
bromides and magnesium salts.
 In bitter lakes, sodium sulfate predominates, but
carbonate and chloride are present.
 Source materials: The sulfate may be derived from the
decomposition of rocks that contain sulfates, or from the
leaching of buried beds of sulfates.
 Such lakes are common in the Arid Regions of America
and Asia.
 Examples are Verde Valley Lake in Arizona; Soda and
Searles Lakes in California; and numerous lakes in New
Mexico; Lakes Altai and Domoshakovo in Russia.
Prof. Dr. H.E
Zv
a
.

Modern Marine Bittern Evolution
Series
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

4) Deposition from Potash Lakes
Potassium
4th ranking cation
High potassium levels are lethal to many aquatic animals
Source of potassium
The potash is believed to have come from the surrounding country that
formerly was burred over by the Indians, releasing plant ashes.
Potash potassium carbonate (K2CO3)
Thought to be ashes of ancient fires
 Some of the alkali lakes contain potash in amounts that permit
commercial extraction.
 The potash lakes of Nebraska, which are just hollows in sand
dunes, are of interest.
 The evaporated salts are high in potassium sulphate and carbonate and
contain soda, salt, and sodium sulfates; one crust contained 21% K2O.
 The Great Salt Lake, Utah, is the most important lake source of potash
in the United States.
Prof. Dr.

Potash Deposition
 Potassium is the seventh most common element occurring in the Earth’s crust, accounting for
2.4% of its mass.
 Potassium present in most rocks and soils. Consequently, they are not common and important
deposits.
 Some of the world's supply of potash is derived from marine evaporates.
 The world has an estimated 250 billion metric tons of K2O resources.
 Occurrences:
 Sedimentary salt beds remaining from Ancient Inland Seas (evaporite deposits)
 Evaporation of Salt lakes and Natural brines
 Potash deposits, i.e. natural concentrations of raw potash, consist of potassium salt rock,
predominantly made up of the potassium minerals:
 Sylvite (KCl),
 Carnallite (KMgCl3*6H2O),
 Kainite (4KCl.4MgSO4.11H2O)
 Langbeinite (K2Mg2(SO4)3),
 Langbeinite (K2SO4 2MgSO4)
 Polyhalite (K2SO4 2MgSO4 2CaSO4 H2O)
 Niter (KNO3)
 Potassium-bearing salt solutions either underground or in salt lakes.
 Flotation is one of the major methods to upgrade the potash. Normally fatty acids are used as
collectors for flotation. This type of collectors is not suitable for the treatment of complex
phosphate ores when calcite, dolomite present. Potash can be separated from halite by reverse
flotation.
 Potash is the most important source of potassium in fertilizers (potassium chloride,potassium
sulfates)
Prof. Dr. H.Z. HarrazPresentation
Evaporite Deposits

Water well drilling on
the western portion of
Allana Potash license,
Dallol Project-Ethiopia
Potash salt and halite crystallization in pilot
test evaporation ponds
KCl
Evaporite Deposits

Evaporite Deposits
Potash Reserves
 ~100 large buried deposits + 100 brine deposits of commercial potential worldwide
 The world has an estimated 250 billion metric tons of K2O resources
 Reserves – deposits of sufficient quantity and quality that are currently mined
 Reserve base – reserves + deposits that are marginally economic or sub economic
 Global reserve estimated at 17 billion t K2O … 8.3 billon tonnes considered commercially
exploitable.
 Middle East – K extracted from Dead Sea:
 contains an estimated 1 billion t KCl
 Latin America:
 Sylvinite and carnallite in the Sergipe basin in Brazil
 KNO3 in Chile in Atacama Desert (est. 1 billion t NaNO3 and 100 million t
KNO3) and Salar de Atacama, a high-attitude dry lake (brine est. at 120
million t KCl and 80 million t K2SO4
 Asia:
 Carnallite and K-bearing brines in Qinghai Province
 Undeveloped Deposits:
 Thailand, Argentina, Amazon Basin in Brazil, Morocco, Poland, and
additional deposits in the FSU

Potash Reserves and
Reserve Base
Reserve Base,
‘000 t K2O
Reserves,
‘000 t K2O
Evaporite Deposits

World Potash Mine Production 2003
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10
Million
metric
tons,
K
2
O
Source: IFA
%
of
total
production
78% of total K2O produced
33
17
15
13
0
5
10
15
30
25
20
35
Evaporite Deposits

Potash Deposits – North America
• World’s largest reserves occur in Saskatchewan
• Ore is exceptionally high grade (25-30% K2O) at
depths of 950-1,100 m increasing to > 3,500 m
• Uniform thickness (2.4-3 m) and mineralization and
no structural deformations
• Sylvinite, some carnallite, and clay
Evaporite Deposits

North America
PotashCorp
• 5 underground mines
and 2 solution mines
in Saskatchewan
• 1 underground mine in
New Brunswick
IMC Global
and 1 solution mine in
Saskatchewan
New Mexico and a
solution mine in
Michigan
Intrepid Mining
in New Mexico
• A brine operationand
solution mine in Utah
Agrium
Saskatchewan
Compass Minerals Group
• 1 brine operation in Utah
Prof. Dr. H.Z. HarrazPresentation
Evaporite Deposits

Latin America
 Produced 3% of world’s
K2O in 2003
 Companhia Vale do Rio
Doce (CVRD) … one mine
in Sergipe
 Sociedad Quimica y Minera
de Chile S.A. (SQM) in
northern Chile produces
KCl/SOP by solar
evaporation and KNO3 from
NaNO3
 Both producing close to
capacity … CVRD plans to
increase capacity
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Brazil
Evaporite Deposits
Chile
K
2
O
production,
‘000
t

Evaporite Deposits
Potash Deposits – FSU
• FSU has extensive proven reserves of K minerals … second only to
the deposits in Saskatchewan
• Russia – Verkhnekamsk deposit in the Urals near Solikamsk
 Potash depth at 75 to 450 m in 13 potentially minable beds
ranging in thickness from 26 to 30 m (sylvinite) and 70 to 80 m
(zone of sylvinite-carnallite).
 Mined beds 1.2 to 6 m thick with 15% K2O with 3 to 5%
insolubles
• Belarus – Starobinsk deposit is 2nd largest in ore body in FSUnear
Soligorsk
 30 potash beds in 4 horizons. Most mining 350 to 620 m depth in
second horizon (1.8 to 4.4 m thick)
 Sylvinite ore averaging 11% K2O and 5% insolubles

Potash Deposits – W. Europe
• Oldest deposits are the Hessen and Thüringen beds in southern Germany
 contain 15 to 20% sylvite, kieserite, and carnallite (~10% K2O)
 Beds are relatively flat-lying, but also folding, with some barren zones, sudden
thickness changes, etc. making mining difficult
• Also carnallite and kieserite deposits in central Germany and sylvite and carnallite in
northern Germany
• Sylvite deposits in England and sylvinite in Spain
• Western Europe …17% of world
production in 2003
 13% from Germany
K2O Production, ‘000 metric t
Evaporite Deposits
1994 2000 2003
France 870 321 0
Germany 3,286 3,409 3,565
Spain 684 522 506
UK 580 601 621

Eastern Europe
JSC Uralkali
JVC Silvinit
Evaporite Deposits
ruskali
• Russia and Belarus are the 2nd and 3rd leading producers … 17% and 15% of
2003 global production
• 2003 Operating capacity:
 Russia – 71% (63% in 1999)
 Belarus – 78% ( 66% in 1999)

Diorama of an underground salt mine in Europe
Evaporite Deposits

Asia
• China is a small producer, but production has been
increasing ~8% per year since 1994
 est. 440,000 t K2O in 2003
• KCl by solar evaporation around Lake Qarhan in Qinghai
Province
 1 million t project under development by Qinghai Yanhu
Potash Fertilizer … 0.3 million t in 2003/04 and 0.7 million t
by 2006/07
Qinghai Yanhu Potash Fertilizer
Evaporite Deposits

Death Valley
Evaporite Deposits
Death Valley is a large salt pan on the
floor of Death Valley, located in the
Mojave Desert within Death Valley
National Park, in eastern California.
Although its exact boundaries are poorly
defined, it extends from the vicinity of the
Ashford Mill site to the Salt Creek Hills, a
distance of about 40 miles.
The salt pan is essentially a gigantic,
dried up bed of a lake that oncecovered
the valley to a depth of 30 feet. Some
2,000 to 4,000 years ago

Potash Deposits in Dead Sea
 K extracted from Dead Sea
 The world’s largest reserve of potash in
the form of salt solutions is the Dead Sea
(up to 1 billion tonnes of K2O), which has
been used for potash production since the
beginning of the 1930s.
 contains an estimated up to 1 billion
tonnes KCl
 Israel and Jordon represented 11% of
world production in 2003
 Today DSW operates on the Israeli side
and APC on the Jordanian side
 Arab Potash, the only producer in Jordan
is being privatized
 Dead Sea Works (DSW), with production
in Israel and recent acquisitions in Spain
and UK is the world’s 5th largest producer
K
2
O
production,
‘000
t
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Israel Jordan
Evaporite Deposits

55
Canada Potash Operations
Saskatchewan 10 New Brunswick 1
11
mining/milling
operations
in Canada
PotashCorp 6
Mosaic 4
Agrium 1
Canpotex –
Offshore Mark eting
Conventional 9
Solution 2

56
Forecast Demand-Supply Balance
Sources: IFA, NRCan
53,657 55,917 57,660 59,352 60,822 62,500
67,995
65,727
70,898
75,057
0
44,167
40,000
20,000
60,000
80,000
Forecast World Demand and Supply Balance (Production Capability) 2011-2016
100,000
100,000
87,242
80,507
2010 2011 2012 2013 2016
000
tonnes
KCl
PotashDemand
2014 2015
Potash Supply(Capability)

Potash Trade
1 0 ,0 0 0
9 ,0 0 0
8 ,0 0 0
7 ,0 0 0
6 ,0 0 0
5 ,0 0 0
4 ,0 0 0
3 ,0 0 0
2 ,0 0 0
1 ,0 0 0
0
‘000
metric
tons,
K
2
O
Export Domestic
Evaporite Deposits
 Grown ~ 3% for two-thirds of potash imports in 2003 annually for the last 10years
 4 countries accounted for two-thirds ofimports
 U.S. 21%
 Brazil 16 %
 China 15%
 India 7%
 U.S. market is mostly mature … modest future growthexpected
 Markets in Asia and LatinAmerica are rising and are expected to continue in the future

Concluding Remarks
 Increasing potash consumption in Brazil, India, and China
 Global K2O consumption is ~24 million t and forecast to reach 29 million
t in next 5 years
 Potash industry has been operating in a surplus
 Exporting countries … 70 to 75% of capacity
 Production capacity is expected to grow ~8% in next 4 to 5 years
 70% of new growth in exporting countries and the balance in China and
Brazil
 At present levels of production (~ 28 million t K2O per year) and with
current/planned capacity, the industry can easily meet future demand
 At present levels of production, minable reserves and the known reserve
base are sufficient to supply potash for at least 600 years
 Considering known resources … there is sufficient potash to meet
demand for thousands of years
Evaporite Deposits

Presentation
Evaporite Deposits
Potash Use
 About 95% of potash is used as a fertilizer in agriculture
 Smaller amounts are also used in manufacture of potassium-bearing
chemicals such as detergents, ceramics, and pharmaceuticals as well
as water conditioners, de-icing salt, and etc
 Global leading potash users are those economies with large agricultural
sectors such as China, India, Brazil, the US, Indonesia and Malaysia
 In the US, more than 45% of potash is applied to produce corn
 In China, 50% of the potash is applied to produce fruits and vegetables,
and 28% to produce rice
 In Brazil, more than 75% of the potash is applied to produce soybean,
sugar cane and corn
 In Malaysia and Indonesia, oil palm accounts for more than 70% of potash
consumed.
 All major consuming countries lack of potash resources and need to
import potash to support their agricultural production

5) Deposition from Borate Lakes
Mineralogy: The chief boron
minerals of playas and brines
are: 2 4 7 2
 Borax (Na B O .10H
O)
 Colemanite (Ca2B6O11.5H2O)
 Ulexite
(Na2.2CaO.5B2O3.16H2O)
 Searlesite
(3Na2O.B2O3.4SiO2.2H2O) is
also found at Searles Marsh
Magnesium borates are considered to be typical of marine conditions and calcium borates
of lake- bod deposits.
Most borates of commerce are obtained from lakes, lake-bed deposits, or dry lakes.
Borate lakes are relatively uncommon, but several are known in California, Nevada,
Oregon, Tibet, Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia.
Formerly, most of the borax in the United States was obtained from lake waters in
California and Nevada or from playas.
Subsequently, borax was made less expensively from colemanite and ulexite, and later
from kernite. At present, the only lakes yielding commercial borax are Searles and
Owens, in California, where it is extracted in conjunction with other salts.
 Source materials: The borax
of the lakes is considered
to have been leached
from, surrounding
igneous rocks or to have
been contributed by
magmatic hot springs.
Uses:
Borax has a wide variety of uses. It is a component of many
detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes. It is also used to
make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as a fire retardant, as
an anti- fungal compound for fiberglass, as an insecticide,
as a flux in metallurgy, and as a precursor for other boron
compounds.
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Mediterranean
Evaporates
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Environmen
ts
Marine
:
 Coastal
 Mud flats –
Sabkhas
 Salt pans
 Barred basins
Continent
al:
 Salt
lakes
 Springs
ENVIRONMENTS FOR EVAPORITE PRECIPITATIO
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits
 Volumetrically, each can be significant:
1) Coastal evaporites
 Form in a Sabkha environment: A coastal, supratidalmudflat
 Evaporites do not precipitate directly fromseawater
 Evaporites replace other material (mineral) in the shallowsubsurface
 Marine processes dominate
 One of the most interesting areas to sedimentologists
 Forms many oil traps
 Also provides one model for dolomite formation
2) Eolian/interdune
 Between sand dunes and ridges
3) Continental: Sabkha/playa
 Shallow saline lakes
Note: these models don’t explain all
evaporites
The importance of shallow vs. deep water is still debated
A problem: To deposit 2000 m of evaporite, you would need to evaporate a LOT of seawater!!
Ex: Evaporation of the entire Mediterranean Sea would only produce 60 m ofevaporites
So: We need models or mechanisms that can replenish the supply of ions
The most significant known evaporite depositions happened during the Messinian salinity crisis in the basin of the
Mediterranean.

i) Marine
Evaporites  Marine evaporites tend to have
thicker deposits.
 They also have a system of
evaporation.
 The most common minerals that are
generally considered to be the most
representative of marine evaporates
are calcite, gypsum and anhydrite,
halite, sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite,
polyhalite, kanite, and Kieserite
(MgSO4).
 However, there are approximately 80
different minerals that have been
reported found in evaporite deposits
(Stewart,1963;Warren,1999), though
only about a dozen are common
enough to be considered important
rock formers.
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Barred Basins
Barred Basins
Basin with limited and intermitted connection to ocean
 Miocene (6 Ma) - Mediterranean Sea – strait of Gibralatar closed by tectonic uplift
 The Mediterranean basins-note they are separated by a number of sills-some are up to
4000m deep.
 2 km of evaps formed- equivalent of evap. of 118 km of seawater
Barred Basins – Modern Analogs?
No existing modern analog for extensive barred
basin
• occurs on small scale– tidal salt marshes
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

The Mediterranean basins-note they are separated by a number
of sills-some are up to 4000m deep.
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

ii) Non-marine (or Continental, Inland lakes) Evaporites
n in marine
e precipitates
have
nvironments.
somite,
gaylussite,
ay in some
cases an
deposits.
deposits often
 Non-marine evaporites are usually composed of minerals that are not
commo environments, because in general the water from which non-
marine evaporit proportions of chemical elements different from those
found in the marine e
 Common minerals that are found in these deposits include blödite, borax, ep
glauberite, mirabilite, thenardite and trona.
 Non-marine deposits may also contain halite, gypsum, and anhydrite,
and m even be dominated by these minerals, although they did not
come from oce
 This, however, does not make non-marine deposits any less important;
these help to paint a picture into past Earth climates.
 Some particular deposits even show important tectonic and climatic changes.
 These deposits also may contain important minerals that help in today's economy.
 Thick non-marine deposits that accumulate tend to form where evaporation rates will
exceed the inflow rate, and where there is sufficient soluble supplies.
 The inflow also has to occur in a closed basin, or one with restricted outflow, so
that the sediment has time to pool and form in a lake or other standing body of
water.
 Primary examples of this are called “Saline lake deposits".
 Saline lakes includes things such as perennial lakes, which are lakes that are there
year-round, playa lakes, which are lakes that appear only during certain seasons, or
any other terms that are used to define places that hold standing bodies of water
intermittently or year-round.
 Examples of modern non-marine depositional environments include the Great Salt
Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea, which lies between Jordan and Israel.
Presentation
Evaporite Deposits

Evaporite
Deposits
Compared between Marine and Non-marine
evaporites
Marine evaporites Non-marine evaporites
 Marine Environments:
 Coastal
 Mud flats –Sabkhas
 Salt pans
 Barred basins
 can be described as ocean or sea water deposits (solutions
derived from normal sea water by evaporation are said to be
hypersaline)
 Shallow basin with high rate of evaporation: e.g. Gulf of Mexico,
Persian Gulf, ancient Mediterranean Sea, and Red Sea.
 The most important salts that precipitate from sea water:
Gypsum, Halite, and Potash salts {Sylvite (KCl), Carnallite
(KMgCl3 * 6H2O), Langbeinite (K2Mg2(SO4)3), Polyhalite
(K2Ca2Mg(SO4)6 * H2O), Kanite (KMg(SO4)Cl * 3H2O), and
Kieserite (MgSO4)}
 Marine evaporite deposits are widespread.
 In North America, for example, strata of marine
evaporites underlie as much as 30% of the land area.
 Marine evaporites produce:
 Most of the salt that we use.
 The gypsum used for plaster.
Prof. Dr. H
 Continental Environments:
 Salt lakes
 Saline Inland lakes
 Playa lakes
 Inland lakes
 Groundwater
 Springs
 Saline lakes includes things such as:
 Perennial lakes, which are lakes that are there year-round;or
 Playa lakes, which are lakes that appear only during certain seasons,
 Examples of modern non-marine depositional environments include the
Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea, which lies between Jordan and
Israel.
 The layers of salts precipitate as a consequence of evaporation:
 Salts that precipitate from lake water of suitable composition
include: Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4),
and Borax (Na2B4O7.1OH2O).
 Borax and other boron-containing minerals are mined from evaporite lake
deposits in Death Valley and Searled and Borax Lakes, all in California;
and in Argentina, Bolivia, Turkey, and China.
 Huge evaporite deposits of Sodium carbonate were laid down in the
Green River basin of Wyoming during the Eocene Epoch.
 Oil shales were also deposited in the basin.
 The most important salts that precipitate from
lake: Blödite, Borax
(Na2B4O7.1OH2O), Epsomite (MgSO4.7H2O), Gaylussite, Glauberite,
Mirabilite,
Thenardite and Trona (NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O).
 Non-marine deposits may also contain Halite, Gypsum, and Anhydrite, and
may in some cases even be dominated by these minerals, although they did
not come from ocean deposits.

References
• http://uregina.ca/~sauchyn/geog323/hjulstrom.gif
• www.allanapotash.com
• http://www.icpotash.com/
• Boggs, Jr., Sam, 2012, Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, 5th edition, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 600 pp. ISBN-10: 0321643186
• Guilbert, J.M. and Park, C.F. (1986). The Geology of Ore Deposits. W.H. Freeman and Co., 985pp.
• Kendall,A.C. and Harwood, G.M. (1996) Marine evaporites; arid shorelines and basins. In H.G. Reading
(ed.), Sedimentary Environments, Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science, pp. 281–324.
• Robb, L.J. (2005). Introduction to ore-forming processes. Blackwell Science Ltd,386pp.
• Abu-Khader, M. M. 2006. “Viable engineering options to enhance the NaCl quality from the Dead Sea in
Jordan”. Journal of Cleaner Production 14:80-86.
• Hillary Kasedde (2013). Characterization of Raw Materials for Salt Extraction from Lake Katwe, Uganda.
Stockholm 2013 ISBN 978-91-7501-767-9
• Sedivy, V.M., 2009. “Environmental balance of salt production speaks in favour of solar salt works” Global
Nest Journal 11: 41-48.
• Westphal, G., Kristen, G., Wegener, W., Ambatiello, P., Geyer, H., Epron B, Bonal C, Steinhauser G,and
Götzfried .F. (2010). Sodium Chloride. 2010 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4.
• Ryan, W.B.F. (2008). Modeling the magnitude and timing of evaporative drawdown during the Messinian
salinity crisis. Finely stratigraphy, vol. 5, nos. 3-4, pp. 227-243.
4 May
2016
68

References
• World Reserves and Production of Potash
Potash in Brazilian Agriculture Symposium São Pedro – SP September 22-
24, 2004
• Bashitialshaaer, R.A.I; Persson, K.M. and Aljaradin, M. (2011). The Dead
Sea Future Elevation. Int. J. of Sustainable Water and Env
• Mining and milling processes used at the PotashCorp mines.
http://www.potashcorp.com/media/POT_Mini_Mine_To ur_brochure.pdf
• Saskatchewan Potash Interpretive Centre:
http://www.potashinterpretivecentre.com/index2.ht
m
• Saskatchewan Mining Association Website: http://www.saskmining.ca
• Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan Website: http://www.potashcorp.com/
• International Fertilizer Association Website:
http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/default.asp
• Agrium Website: http://www.agrium.com
• The Mosaic Company Website: http://www.mosaicco.comironmental
Systems Volume 2, No. 2 67-76

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‫ت‬
‫ص‬
‫م‬
‫ي‬
‫م‬
‫عي‬
‫ت‬‫م‬
‫د‬ •
‫ماخال‬
‫لمال‬‫ح‬
‫نم‬
‫ا‬‫ال‬‫اتن‬‫ج‬‫ةي‬
‫ةيمك‬
‫هساسا‬
‫لع‬‫ى‬
‫ددحي‬
‫ىذالو‬
‫ل‬
‫ل‬
‫ب‬
‫خ‬
‫ر‬
‫ضرعمال‬
‫حطسال‬
‫ةحاسم‬ (1
‫ةحالملل‬
‫تال‬‫غ‬‫يذ‬‫ة‬
‫هايم‬
‫تو‬‫ر‬‫يك‬‫ز‬
‫ةيعون‬ (2 ‫اب‬‫خ‬‫ت‬‫ال‬‫ف‬
‫ي‬
‫خ‬
‫ت‬
‫ل‬
‫ف‬
‫بال‬‫خ‬‫ر‬
‫لدعم‬
‫نا‬
‫فورعمال‬
‫نم‬
‫هنا‬
‫هنال‬
‫لع‬‫ي‬‫اه‬
‫ةحالمال‬
‫اشنا‬‫ء‬
‫دارمال‬
‫نمالب‬‫ط‬‫ةق‬
‫اسال‬‫ئ‬‫د‬
‫بال‬‫خ‬‫ر‬
‫لدعم‬ (3
‫لولحمال‬
‫يكرت‬‫ز‬‫ا‬‫ت‬
. ‫اهب‬
‫ةحالمال‬
‫اشنا‬‫ء‬
‫دارمال‬
‫ةقطنمال‬
‫ل‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫ب‬
‫ة‬
‫تال‬‫س‬‫بر‬
‫لدعم‬ (4
•
‫وا‬
‫انصال‬‫ع‬‫ةي‬
‫لمالو‬‫و‬‫تاث‬
‫ىحصال‬
‫فرصال‬
‫فراصم‬
‫نع‬
‫ب‬
‫ع‬
‫ي‬
‫د‬
‫ه‬
‫ن‬
‫ظ‬
‫ي‬
‫ف‬
‫ة‬
‫هايم‬
‫لخادم‬
‫نم‬
‫نوكي‬
‫نا‬
‫بجي‬
‫ثمال‬‫ال‬‫ى‬
‫تو‬‫ص‬‫يم‬‫م‬
‫بال‬‫ح‬‫ر‬
‫هايم‬
‫امت‬‫ث‬‫ل‬
‫ال‬
‫ت‬
‫ى‬
‫بال‬‫ح‬‫ي‬‫ر‬‫ا‬‫ت‬
‫وا‬
‫بال‬‫ح‬‫ر‬
‫هايم‬
‫لثم‬
‫ال‬
‫ط‬
‫ب‬
‫ي‬‫ع‬
‫ي‬‫ة‬
‫؛‬
‫ىه‬
‫ضاوحا‬
‫ةعومجم‬
‫تو‬‫ض‬‫م‬
‫بوذال‬‫ا‬‫ن‬‫ي‬‫ة‬
‫ةحيحش‬
‫ىهو‬
‫حالمالا‬
‫هذهل‬
‫بوذال‬‫ا‬‫ن‬‫ي‬‫ة‬
‫لع‬‫ى‬
‫تو‬‫ع‬‫ت‬‫م‬‫د‬
‫انوبركال‬‫ت‬
‫حالما‬
‫نم‬
‫يف‬‫ه‬
‫ا‬
‫تال‬‫خ‬‫ل‬‫ص‬
‫ي‬
‫ت‬
‫م‬
‫ضاوحا‬
‫ىهو‬
‫ال‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫ق‬
‫ي‬
‫د‬
‫ضاوحا‬ -
‫الوا‬
‫ف‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫س‬
‫ب‬
‫–سبجال‬ ‫يسالكال‬‫و‬‫م‬
‫ك‬
‫ب‬
‫ر‬
‫ي‬
‫ت‬
‫ا‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫س‬
‫ي‬
‫ب‬
‫ضاوحا‬ •
‫ال‬
‫ت‬‫ر‬
‫ك‬
‫ي‬‫ز‬
‫ماخال‬
‫لمال‬‫ح‬
‫داصحال‬
‫مويسنغامال‬
‫ب‬
‫ك‬
‫ل‬‫و‬
‫ر‬
‫ي‬‫د‬
‫نغال‬‫ى‬
‫رمال‬
‫لل‬‫م‬‫لح‬‫و‬‫ل‬
‫فرص‬
•
‫لي‬‫ي‬‫ه‬‫ا‬
‫انوبركال‬‫ت‬
‫حالما‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫ك‬
‫ي‬
‫ز‬
‫بوسنم‬
‫نم‬
‫ىلعا‬
‫نم‬‫س‬‫بو‬‫ة‬
‫نوكي‬
‫ال‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫ق‬
‫ي‬
‫د‬
‫ضوحف‬
‫ب‬
‫م‬
‫ن‬‫ا‬‫س‬
‫ي‬‫ب‬
‫اهميمصت‬
‫ف‬
‫ي‬
‫ت‬
‫م‬
‫ضاوحالا‬
‫ل‬
‫ت‬
‫ص‬
‫م‬
‫ي‬
‫م‬
‫ب‬
‫ال‬
‫ن‬
‫س‬
‫ب‬
‫ة‬
‫نغ‬‫ي‬‫ا‬
‫نوكي‬
‫ىذالو‬
‫رمال‬
‫اسال‬‫ئ‬‫ل‬
‫فرص‬
‫بوسن‬
‫م‬
‫اهلقا‬
‫ث‬
‫م‬
‫مويدوصال‬
‫لك‬‫و‬‫ير‬‫د‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫س‬
‫ي‬
‫ب‬
‫بوسنم‬
‫لي‬‫س‬‫اه‬
‫ال‬
‫ك‬
‫ب‬
‫ر‬
‫ي‬
‫ت‬‫ا‬‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫س‬
‫ي‬
‫ب‬
‫ضاوحا‬
‫تو‬‫ر‬‫يك‬‫ز‬
‫ت‬
‫ر‬
‫س‬
‫ي‬
‫ب‬
‫لمع‬‫ي‬‫ة‬
‫ت‬
‫ف‬
‫س‬
‫د‬
‫بو‬‫ال‬‫ت‬‫ال‬‫ى‬
‫ضاوحالل‬
‫اددجم‬
‫ءامال‬
‫برسيال‬
‫تح‬‫ى‬
‫ءامال‬
‫ردصم‬
‫ف‬
‫ى‬
‫تال‬‫ح‬‫مك‬
‫ي‬
‫ت‬
‫م‬
‫امك‬ . ‫نغمال‬‫س‬‫ي‬‫و‬‫م‬
‫حالماب‬
. ‫حالمالا‬
Evaporite Deposits
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