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A study of consumer behaviour among football
supporters; how evident is brand loyalty?
Nick Sargent
3012135
May 2014
BA (Hons) Business Administration

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Abstract
Purpose – The aim of this study was to examine and understand the behaviours that affect
loyalty for supporters of Plymouth Argyle FC. Supporters of a football club have been
segmented based on loyalty and their behaviours compared to understand their emotions
towards their supported football club. Understanding the motivation behind each segments
decision to attend live matches is crucial to this study.
Design/Methodology/Approach – 4 interviews were included in this study, of which 2 were
with supporters of Plymouth Argyle FC and the other 2 were with footballers that play for the
club. Additionally a total of 56 people responded to a questionnaire that included basic
demographics, their game attendance details and a semantic scale section.
Findings – It was found that it is possible to segment football supporters based on their
loyalty towards their supported team. Further findings included such segments holding
various levels of emotional attachment towards their supported club. Game attendance for
each segment differs and reasons for attending games are based on the need for affiliation
among a particular segment.
Research Limitations - Limitations lie in the emphasis on a particular football club making it
difficult to generalise. The size of the sample was also relatively small.
Originality/Value – This study was produced after extensive reading in the field and follows
on and extends previous research. It also provides segmentation for consumers of a football
club.
Keywords – Brand Loyalty, Consumer Behaviour, Brand Emotion, Football Club.
Paper Type – Research paper

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Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................................5
1.2 Significance of the Study .....................................................................................................5
1.3 Research Question ...............................................................................................................6
1.4 Research Objectives.............................................................................................................6
1.5 Aim of the study.....................................................................................................................6
1.6 Dissertation Structure...........................................................................................................6
Chapter 2: Literature Review..............................................................................................................8
2.1 Brand Loyalty.........................................................................................................................8
2.2 Brand Emotion.....................................................................................................................13
2.3 Game Attendance ...............................................................................................................16
Chapter 3: Methodology....................................................................................................................19
3.1 Quantitative Research........................................................................................................19
3.2 Qualitative Research ..........................................................................................................20
3.3 Ethnography.........................................................................................................................23
3.4 Sampling...............................................................................................................................24
3.5 Chosen Method ...................................................................................................................25
3.6 Ethical Considerations........................................................................................................26
Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analysis........................................................................................28
4.1 Qualitative Data..................................................................................................................28
4.2 Quantitative Findings..........................................................................................................36
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion...........................................................................................47
List of References ..............................................................................................................................50
Appendix 1 ..........................................................................................................................................55
1.1: Keller’s (1993) Consumer-Based Brand Equity Model.....................................................55
1.2: Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of Needs Model ......................................................................56
1.3: McClelland’s (1966) Three Need Theory............................................................................57
Appendix 2 ..........................................................................................................................................58
2.1 Transcript 1 ..........................................................................................................................58
2.2 Transcript 2 .........................................................................................................................61
2.3 Transcript 3 ..........................................................................................................................64

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2.4 Transcript 4 ..........................................................................................................................67
Appendix 3: Questionnaire ...............................................................................................................69
Appendix 4: Detailed Project Proposal ..........................................................................................71
Appendix 5: Project plan..................................................................................................................76
List of Figures
Figure 1: Basic Demographics.........................................................................................................36
Figure 2: Match Experience..............................................................................................................43
Figure 3: Plymouth Argyle Support .................................................................................................44
Figure 4: Support Duration ...............................................................................................................46
List of tables
Table 1: Fishbein Equation Low Devotion Results .......................................................................39
Table 2: Fishbein Equation Medium Devotion Results.................................................................40
Table 3: Fishbein Equation High Devotion Results ......................................................................41
Table 4: Attendance Affiliation .........................................................................................................45

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Chapter 1: Introduction
“You can change your wife, change your politics, change your religion. But never, never can
you change your favourite football team” – Eric Cantona (Cantona, 2009).
The relationship between a football supporter and their football club is a unique one. Many
studies have looked at how consumers behave towards their favourite brands, but what if
that brand is their football club and forms part of their identity? The special relationship
between a supporter and their football club differs greatly from consumers and brands of
everyday products. Studies in the field have established football clubs as brands and
extensively assessed how they gain competitive advantage. "The fans are the heart of
football" – former Welsh international footballer, John Charles. Loyal consumers of football
need to be addressed by football clubs to obtain success and support; supporters are the
viewers of the entertainment that is football. Taylor (1998) states that “football is more than
just a business. No one has their ashes scattered down the aisle of Tesco” (Tapp and
Clowes 2002. pp 1250).
Vast differences are apparent between clubs in the English premier league and the smaller
English leagues (Championship, League one and League two). A clear difference is that
premier league teams gain 60 per cent of their revenues from broadcasting rights and ticket
sales (Mintel, 2013). For clubs in the English premier league selling out their stadium is
extremely common. Lower league teams do not gain the huge broadcasting rights and
stadium sell outs are much more rare; emphasis on consumers is much more forefront in the
lower leagues of English football. With the huge fan bases held by the premier league
teams, what does this mean for smaller clubs with smaller fan bases when attempting to
climb the leagues. This study will focus on current League 2 team Plymouth Argyle FC; a
team that has fallen through the football leagues due to financial issues and subsequently
lost support.
1.2 Significance of the Study
This study seeks to understand how consumers chose to support their football clubs and
why loyalty is so unique within the football industry. The implications from the findings on the
behaviour displayed by football supporters will provide football clubs with an indication as to

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how such consumers are affected by their supported club. Segmentation of football
supporters will be produced and the differing opinions, attitudes and feelings of such
segments will be contrasted. Arguably English football fans are among the most devoted and
emotionally attached due to the history of the game in England as well as their unique
emotions towards their club; therefore an English club will be used (Plymouth Argyle FC).
Models directed towards consumer behaviour will be used in the research process to
understand the consumption of football clubs, more specifically, attending live matches.
These models include: Keller’s consumer-based brand equity; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs;
McClelland’s three needs theory and the extended self (Solomon, 2006).
1.3 Research Question
How does consumer behaviour of football fans influence brand loyalty?
1.4 Research Objectives
1. To identify segments of football supporters
2. To unveil consumers motivation for attending live matches
3. How brand loyalty is unique among football supporters
4. To display the emotional attachment consumers have towards football clubs
1.5 Aim of the study
This study aims to segment then compare football supporters. There will be a focus on a
particular football club as to be more specific on the emotions and attitudes supporters have
towards their supported club. The final aim will be to understand the motivations behind each
segments decision to attend live matches by looking into areas such as the clubs success
and match day attributes.
1.6 Dissertation Structure
The initial chapter of this dissertation will be the introduction; this chapter will include a brief
introduction to the topic followed by how such research is significant. After outlining the
research question and objectives there will be a brief section stating the aims of the study.

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The second chapter will entail a review of all relevant literature; the reviewed literature will be
segmented into three subtopics, these being brand loyalty; brand emotion and finally game
attendance and brand loyalty. The literature will be extracted from various sources, such as:
newspaper articles, online journals and books. The theories of researchers will be
compared, linked and evaluated as to locate a gap in the literature.
In the third chapter there will be a focus on outlining methods of which to collect primary
data. Certain methods of qualitative and quantitative data collection will be defined along
with the strengths and weaknesses of the methods. After the various techniques have been
identified a method will then be chosen with reference to relevant literature to guide the
decision.
The penultimate chapter will show how the data was collected before the information is
displayed. The qualitative analysis will see quotes extracted from the interviews and broken
down referring back to the literature. The quantitative data derived from the questionnaire
will be placed into various graphs using excel and an analytical paragraph will follow.
Finally, there will be a discussion in which the findings will be linked to relevant literature as
well as how well the findings achieved the research objectives. After the brief discussion
there will be a conclusion in which the dissertation is summarised followed by further
research that could be carried out in the field along with the limitations of the study.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Prior to undertaking research into the behaviour of consumers in the football industry it is
pertinent to review and contrast previous studies in the field. As the aim, objectives and
significance of the study were established in the previous chapter the gathering of secondary
data will surround the topics of brand loyalty. Consumer behaviour is measured by brand
emotion and game attendance
2.1 Brand Loyalty
Many researchers in the field of brand loyalty agree that Jacoby and Olson’s (1970)
definition is the most complete. Jacoby and Olson (1970) define brand loyalty as the result of
non-random, long existence behaviour response, and as a mental purchase process formed
by certain decision units considered more than one brands (Lin, 2010).
One prudent issue contained in brand loyalty towards football clubs is the way in which
consumers choose a football team to support and how loyal they are towards that team.
Abosag et al (2012) state that the two main reasons for consumers to support a football
team are: it’s the consumer’s local team or the supporter was born in the town/city the team
represents. Kapferer (2002) extends this argument by outlining that consumers have deep-
rooted ties to brands in the context of culture and social identity. The attachment between a
supporter and a club is more than psychological, literature on the subject shows that it is
evident that the team is part of their identity.
Kapferer (2002) alludes to people consuming brands in which their parents consume, this is
a relationship that is built on trust and loyalty; this is directly applicable to football brands as
people are influenced by the team their parents and peers support from a very early age.
Moutinho et al (2008) found that football devoted supporters have a sort of cult with their
football club and that the affiliation with social groups is rooted in social recognition.
Additionally Donnelly and Young (1988) state that attitude is learnt and formed towards a
sports team from various social groups and information sources, such as: family; peers and
media exposure; this evokes the early stages of the hierarchy of effects model, namely
awareness (Blythe, 2008). Fisher and Wakefield (1998) say individuals strive to maintain or
enhance a positive social identity by affiliating themselves with attractive social groups. This

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‘cult’ or ‘tribalism’ represented in the supporters of football clubs is not uncommon and
consumers actively seek to be a part of the football club and the football club to be a part of
them. An example of this is Plymouth Argyle fans who refer to themselves as ‘the twelfth
man’, implying that they are as important to the club as the other eleven players on the field
(Conn, 2010). Understanding the tribal nature of football supporters is of vital importance for
football clubs when seeking to please stakeholders.
Mason (1999) states that the products of a sports league can be split into four categories,
these being: fans; television and other media; communities that construct facilities and
support local clubs and corporations that interact with the leagues and teams. Mason (1999)
adds that the committed fan differs from other sports consumers in that their loyalty is higher
and means there are few competitive substitutes to a fan of a specific team. Mason (1999)
defines certain supporters as “die hard” fans, these fans will continue to support their team
whether they win or lose; whereas gaining following and loyalty from fans not so committed
to one club will require alternative measures in order to attract them to the football club.
Jones (1998) extends this with his research stating the success or failure of their team does
not affect the identity of a fan towards the club, instead bad experiences are rationalised by
referring to things that differentiate their team, for example, the quality of the football their
team play. Findings in the literature under brand loyalty in football all allude to there being a
clear difference between the loyalty with generic products and loyalty with football clubs;
moving between brands is extremely rare within the industry.
The model of ‘brand love’ is discussed and extended in Merunka and Albert’s (2013)
research on the role of brand love in consumer-brand relationships. Merunka and Albert
(2013) suggest that consumers love for a brand in turn increases their commitment to that
brand which is essential for sustained brand loyalty. Word-of-mouth marketing benefits
substantially from brand love as consumers are far more likely to talk about the brand. Due
to intense commitment consumers are more likely to accept price increases of the brands
product and are more willing to pay a premium price; therefore implying the ticket price
increase in football will not affect those supporters who display ‘brand love’ towards their
club. Blumrodt and Bryson et al (2012) apply Keller’s consumer based brand equity model
(Appendix 1.1) to supporters of football clubs, it is stated that supporters have already made
their purchasing decision, not only opting to be present at the game rather than watching it
on TV but by choosing to watch that live event over other forms of sports entertainment.
Moreover Aaker (1991) outlines that brand loyalty along with perceived qualities, brand
awareness and brand association makes up the dimensions of brand equity. Brand loyalty is

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applied by football supporters when purchasing club merchandise, buying tickets and
season tickets. Doloriert and Whitworth (2011) suggest there are levels of brand loyalty from
the extremely devoted that are more willing to pay a premium price to attend games and
purchase club related products. On the other hand Doloriert and Whitworth (2011) state that
due to international broadcasting a new era of fans that are more fickle and less loyal than
their “devoted counterparts” have emerged. Similar to identifying these more fickle fans
derived from international broadcasting outlined by Doloriert and Whitworth (2011), Kerr and
Gladden (2008) discuss that from the emergence of international satellite broadcasting, a
new breed of ‘satellite’ fans has been born. This is coherent with Giulittio’s (2002) research
in which he recognises these fans as ‘flaneurs’, as they carry a more ‘market-based’ relation
to the football club.
Tapp and Clowes’s (2002) research sets to seek segmentation opportunities for football
supporters. They look to further Parker and Stuarts (1997) findings of the extremely high
customer loyalty in sports attendance compared to loyalty in other sectors. The two different
segments of football supporters outlined by Tap and Clowes (2002) are ‘Repertoire’ fans and
‘one club fans’. ‘Repertoire’ fans are defined as those who only occasionally go to watch
‘their’ team, ‘Repertoire’ fans also engage in multiple brand usage as they also attend games
not involving their team. ‘One club’ fans are supporters who are distinctly loyal in terms of
only attending games involving their team. The characteristics of ‘one club’ fans are very
similar to the ‘die-hard’ fans identified by Mason (1999) who also stand by their regardless of
success factors. There is clear segmentation within consumers of football which is to be
recognised by football clubs as to gain and maintain consumers of the brand. Additionally
consumers displaying characteristics of ‘one club’ fans will not show fleeting loyalty
dependant on the success or failure of the club (Bauer and Sauer et al, 2005). Other
segments of consumers will be less inclined to attend games if the team is performing badly
gets relegated; ultimately impacting the football clubs consumer base.
Alonso and O’Shea’s (2013) study into consumer behaviour among football supporters in the
Australian A-league football league identified emphasis on a club to be involved locally as to
connect and increase the interest levels of local residents; in accordance to this Blumrodt
and Bryson et al (2012) also found that the clubs media exposure, spectators profile and
clubs community involvement impact greatly on the purchasing of the brand. They conclude
by stating that sporting performance is a key element for the brand and will stimulate brand
loyalty and improve brand equity. Though Walters and Chadwick (2009) discuss the
community trust model of stakeholder engagement and difficulties of implementing such
community based schemes. They outline the beginning of football in the community
schemes and how it has grown to become a key part of the football industry that maintains a

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team’s sense of being part of the geographic location. Walter and Chadwick (2009) argue
that the link between the local community, culture and tradition is being more disconnected
in recent years, implying that large finances and globalisation is among the reasons. Their
study on two relatively small football clubs (Charlton and Brentford) found that implementing
a ‘football in the community’ scheme or a community trust model does not affect the financial
position of the football club and therefore there should be no resistance against the
implementation. Further findings by Walter and Chadwick (2009) were that football clubs
struggle to engage community stakeholders as distinguishing the correct stakeholders to
target is becoming increasingly difficult. Being unable to select the correct stakeholder’s to
target impacts clubs as they could upset certain key customers and loyalty could decline.
Morrow (2003), on the subject of geographic location of supporters remarks that due to the
increased merchandising, satellite television and marketing football clubs are becoming
increasingly delocalised. A prime example of a club that is now a global brand would be
Manchester United who hold a vast following all around the world due to global marketing
and merchandising. This is less relevant to smaller less successful teams, for example
Plymouth Argyle FC, although Plymouth Argyle FC hold a strong fan base in Norway, who
also possess social network accounts in order to interact with likeminded supporters and the
football club (Twitter.com, 2013). Consumers would typically choose the team closest to
where they were born or grew up, in contrast to Morrow’s (2003) work Easterbrook (2013)
states that sports brands are franchises in America and shareholders move the sports team
around geographically, a notion that would seem Ludicrous to stakeholders (supporters) of
football teams in England. For example: the Coventry City relocation debacle, in which
supporters reacted extremely negatively to the mere idea of their clubs stadium not being in
Coventry (Telegraph.co.uk, 2013). A further example is the aforementioned relocation of
Wimbledon FC to Milton Keynes, in which it they then became Milton Keynes Dons.
Dissatisfied supporters of the rebranding of Wimbledon FC led to the establishment of the
new club AFC Wimbledon (Couper, 2002). Walter and Chadwick (2009) argue that the link
between the local community, culture and tradition is being more disconnected in recent
years, implying that large finances and globalisation are among the reasons, similar to the
work of Morrow (2003) on the delocalised nature of football clubs in recent years.
Rein and Kotler et al (2006) state three eras of change as the media communication and
viewing habits changed and evolved over the decades. The first of which is defined as the
monopoly generation, which is between 1900-1950 in which there was a requirement for
supporters to physically go and watch the match due to lack of media. This era saw sports
grow significantly yet could not reach certain market segments due to there being no
platforms for reach. The second era is defined as ‘the television generation’ between 1950

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and 1990 where supporters could choose to either watch games on their televisions sets or
attend the live game. Consumers that watch matches on television and occasionally attend
matches are also named as the ‘Eyeballs’ segment by Rein and Kotler et all (2006) when
they categorise 7 segments of fans. This also saw sports attracting larger audiences
accommodated by the television. The television era also affected players as they were under
scrutiny and had to display good off field behaviour. The latest era outlined by Rein and
Kotler et al (2006) is from 1990 to the present day and is named ‘the highlight generation’,
technological developments and change has seen youth culture change intensely over the
past two decades allowing audiences to watch the games through an array of mediums as
and when they want; concluding that attending live matches is not the sole display of loyalty
from consumers. This culture is reinforced and concluded by Mason (1999) who mentions
consumers not having to physically attend games to show support or consume their football
brand; this is due to the growing number of television broadcasters showing football
alongside higher audience figures watching live matches through their television. Mason
(1999) states the evidence backing this point is the rescheduling of games as to provide
better broadcasting opportunities for networks. Rein and Kotler et al (2006) and Mason
(1999) argue against Tapp and Clowes (2002) point of characterising ‘one club’ fans
exclusively as those who regularly attend live matches.

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2.2 Brand Emotion
Chanavat and Bodet (2009) look to apply Keller’s consumer-based brand equity model to the
‘big four’ English football clubs using French football consumers. The teams identified as the
‘big four’ in their study are Manchester United FC, Arsenal FC, Chelsea FC and Liverpool
FC. Consumers swayed towards Arsenal over the likes of Chelsea FC due to their rich
history and heritage. Chanavat and Bodet (2009) categorise the French consumers in the
study as ‘satellite fans’ in which the four stages of Keller’s consumer based brand equity
model is most relevant. Funk and James (2006) propose a frame work to explain consumer
behaviour in sports; the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) consists of four hierarchal
stages: attachment, awareness, attraction and allegiance. Awareness signifies an
individual’s awareness of the existence of the team, although solely through awareness the
individual may not become a follower of the team; this matches the statements made in
Chanavat and Bodet’s (2009) study in which the French consumers are aware of but do not
support a ‘big four’ team from the English premier league. Attraction: an individual becomes
attracted to the team in terms of choosing a favourite team and attending their games or
watching them through other methods. Chanavat and Bodet (2009) show attraction to a
specific club in the English premier league’s ‘big four’ clubs is not only as a result of their
success. For example consumers were attracted to Arsenal FC because of their like for the
clubs intangible asset Thierry Henry. Attachment: These individuals show a strong
relationship between themselves and the sports team and possess different attitudes due to
their psychological attachment to their team. Allegiance: Individual’s behaviour becomes
influenced by the connection with their team; their connection to the team also becomes
more persistent. Jones’ (1998) work on Luton Town FC correlates with Funk and James’s
(2006) psychological continuum model (PCM) as he identifies that fandom is characterised
by a large level of commitment, unveiling that the majority of football fans see their club as
an important aspect of their identity and their conception of themselves. Connection to their
team in this manner is also discussed by Rein and Kotler et al (2012) who outline a segment
of fans as ‘ensnared’; ensnared fans are the most involved of all fans, these consumers see
their team as part of their identity and feel their support has an impacts the team and are
part of the teams identity.

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Opposing Asobag’s (2012) study revealing that supporters are welcoming of the
commercialisation of their club are Chadwick and Beech (2007) who identify that supporters
of football clubs do not welcome the branding of their clubs with open arms, they
alternatively suggest that sport is consumed in an irrational economic way. This is supported
by Westerbeek and Smith (2003) who mention that sport watching is not only a social
experience but also a personal one, with implications in social identity; similarly Jones (1998)
mentions that a persons supported football team is an aspect of their identity.
Merunka and Albert (2013) found that the aforementioned concept of ‘brand love’ has a large
influence on brand commitment; they state that love plays a vital role in maintaining a
relationship with the brand. As Merunka and Albert (2013) state that consumers feel love for
their brand this includes the assets of the brand; in football the players are a key intangible
asset to the club. Bodet and Chanavat (2009) discuss consumers not only looking at their
star players in terms of ability and how much of an asset they are to the success of the
football club but they also note that off-field behaviours are just as important as they
representation of the club supported by the consumer. At the time of Bodet and Chanavat’s
(2009) study Cristiano Ronaldo was a Manchester United player, certain consumers in the
study found that they do not like Manchester United due to their dislike for Ronaldo.
Consumers that are seen to be attached to their team and the players of that team and are
affected by the behaviours of both are referred to as ‘attatchers’ by Rein and Kotler et all
(2006) as they categorise 7 potential segments of fans, these being: indifferent fans;
eyeballs; collectors; attatchers; insiders and the ensnared.
Findings by Chanavat and Bodet (2009) state that Arsenal FC are a desirable football team
to support overseas as they have great players, a long and rich history and play quality
entertaining football; although Tapp and Clowes (2002) found that “one club” fans, who are
described as the true supporters of the team, care more about their team winning than the
entertainment of the match itself. Furthermore Chanavat and Bodet (2009) mention that
Arsenal FC are not successful in terms of winning silverware. Consumers are showed to
take a shine to teams with great players as well as strong history and traditions; this is
showed when they are shown to not be so fond of Chelsea who have acquired titles and
great players by substantial financial investment at the time of the study. A current English
football club showing huge financial investment and success without the long standing
history would be Manchester City.
As a club is a part of many people’s identity and culture as outlined by Jones (1998), Funk
and James (2006) and Rein and Kotler et al (2012) imply the geographic location is also a
part of a person and supports the link between consumer and club. Blumrodt and Bryson et

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al (2012) outline the importance of a good relationship between a football club and the
region in which it is situated. They also state that clubs need to be aware of consumer’s
feelings towards the significance of the relationship between the football club and the
town/city. This is supported by Merunka and Albert’s (2013) ‘brand love’ model. It is of
crucial importance for football clubs to engage in local and regional projects to build social
goodwill (Blumrodt and Bryson et al, 2012). Easterbrook (2013) furthers this argument of
geographic location when comparing America’s sports shareholders who freely move the
geographic location of the franchise, an extreme example of this being the proposed move to
London by the Jacksonville Jaguars NFL team (Parker, 2013); to supporters of English
football clubs such a notion would be considered absurd. Before Wimbledon FC was
relocated to Milton Keynes there was a proposed move of the club to Dublin, Ireland
(Malone, 1998). As Wimbledon FC fans didn’t willingly accept the move to nearby town
Milton Keynes a move abroad would have cause supporter dissatisfaction to be far more
intense. Geographic location is extremely important to supporters of English football clubs as
their links between location, the club and their identity are strong (Easterbrook, 2013).

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2.3 Game Attendance
A clear indication of loyalty amongst football supporters is their attendance to live matches.
Mintel research undertaken in 2009 regarding consumer’s attendance to live matches found
that 65% of premier league football club supporters attend games regularly, yet 5% have
never attended a live football match. Of the sample used 22% described themselves as
‘occasional’ attendees of Premier League Matches (Mintel, 2009). Affecting these figures
outline by Mintel could be the rising price of tickets to attend football games which could test
consumer’s loyalty towards their chosen club. In an article in the Guardian written by Stuart
James (2012) it is outlined that there was a rise in season ticket prices between 2010 and
2012. The majority or premier league clubs raised their season ticket prices in this time
period, with the smallest rise being 2% (Wigan Athletic) and the largest rise being 33%
(Reading). Six teams froze their season ticket prices with even less reducing them. West
Bromwich Albion were the only team to drop the price of their season tickets, this made their
cheapest season ticket £349, just £9 more expensive than a season ticket at Plymouth
Argyle FC, a side that sit three leagues below West Bromwich Albion (Plymouth Herald,
2012).
Ticket pricing is firmly positioned in the heart of consumers and is vital in identifying loyalty
within the industry. Rising ticket prices and varying attendance figures throughout the
English football leagues has been subject to a number of studies. Morrow (2003) states that
a portion of supporters see problems arising from the commercialising of football, more
specifically, ticket pricing and the power of football clubs. He expands further and identifies
that the increase in ticket prices could prevent people from attending games. This point is
backed up by Williams and Perkins (1998) who found that people who previously attended
games but don’t anymore, of this group, 70 per cent referred to the rise in ticket pricing at the
main reason for no longer attending games. Though Asobag (2012) argues that supporters
of football clubs are more accepting of the commercialisation of their clubs, stating that
supporters understand the importance of branding within football to create a successful club
and brand as they are not only in direct competition with other football brands but other
leisure choices in which their money can be spent. Morrow (2003) and Williams and Perkins’
(1998) earlier work has been recently backed by a 2009 Mintel study that shows 75% of
supporters believe that match day tickets are too expensive. This combined with the current
UK recession has resulted in supporters less likely to attend their team’s games (Mintel,
2009).

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Tapp and Clowes (2002) found that the aforementioned “one club” fans have a higher
frequency of attending games involving their team; with 144 “one club” fans attending all
home and away matches opposed to just 48 of the aforementioned “repertoire” fans. Their
findings differ from those of Rein and Kotler et al (2012) who imply that regardless of a
consumer’s loyalty towards a club due to the latest generation (‘the highlight generation’)
they don’t have the incentives to attend live matches due to the array of mediums they can
watch the match on. The studies by Tapp and Clowes (2002) and Rein and Kotler (2006)
refer mainly to big teams in the English premier league and certain factors are not applicable
to smaller football clubs, for example, Plymouth Argyle FC do not regularly appear on live
television and their highlights are considerably shorter than that of the big English football
clubs. Plymouth Argyle FC lost a large amount of following when they dropped out of the
championship in 2010; the championship is the fourth highest viewed league in Europe
bettered only by the Premier League, the Bundesliga and La Liga (Trent, 2009). Attendances
of Plymouth Argyle FC games have dropped considerably since the financial difficulties or
the club and their relegation through the leagues (Alexander, 2011).
Mason (1999) included there being a need for good stadium atmosphere as well as a high
quality match in order to sway supporters of the team to attend live matches; consumers in
this study saw high quality games as a more instrumental factor than their team winning.
Atmosphere and the quality of the match are discussed as the ‘primary product’ by Blumrodt
and Bryson et al (2012); the primary service is the match that is played on the field. The
factors that arise in the primary service are the management, the success and the players.
Findings from this study include: the customers experience is linked to the match being
played, and product related attributes are in the heart of spectators’ brand perceptions;
supporters enjoy stadium attendance, a good atmosphere within the stadium creates a
positive customer experience (Blumrodt and Bryson et al, 2012). Alonso and O’shea’s
(2013) study showed indications of consumers that were not ‘die hard’ fans under the study
of Mason (1999) rely on a number of factors to entice them into attending a live match event.
As previously refereed to Blumrodt and Bryson et al (2012) also found that the clubs media
exposure, spectators profile and clubs community involvement are impact greatly on the
purchasing of the brand. They conclude by stating that sporting performance is a key
element for the brand and will stimulate consumers to be loyal to their team and increase
brand equity. Though Abosag et al (2012) argue that consumers do not like the
commercialisation of their team and respond negatively to media exposure of their club.
There has been a recent creation of a new football club in England, FC United of

18. 18
Manchester, created by a small proportion of Manchester United fans in a direct reaction to
the commercialisation of their football club (Abosag, 2012). Morrow (2003) expands to say
that the implication of globalised support rather than people interacting with their home
town/city club is yet to be answered in studies; though this was prior to the work of Blumrodt
and Bryson et al (2012) and Abosag (2012).

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Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Quantitative Research
Malhotra (2002) recommends using quantitative research for capturing large amounts of
data. Quantitative collection seeks to generate ‘hard data’ in which can be transferred into
tables and graphs for analysis. Gathering quantitative data usually requires using a large
amount of respondents in a relatively small time period. Quantitative data is collected in
numerical form which is derived from the measurement process of turning data into figures
(Warwick, 2013). Particular variables in quantitative research can be measured and
manipulated in order to define people’s characteristics and describe their attitudes; it
therefore provides the ability to generalise the data. Furthermore the generation of ‘hard
data’ sets to test hypothesis.
Strengths
Madrigal and McClain (2012) state that ‘’statistical analysis lets us derive important facts
from research data, including preference trends, differences between groups and
demographics’’. Comparing and contrasting data is much easier when using quantitative
data due to the ability to create tables and graphs using the data collected. Quantitative data
can be interpreted into patterns and trends as well as being able to test pre created
hypothesis that may have been developed through qualitative research.
Limitations
A specific limitation of quantitative research can stem from the use of a questionnaire. If the
questionnaire is too long people will be less likely to participate, this is backed by Malhotra
(2010) who states that people are less willing to respond to a large quantity of questions. A
respondent’s bias can be engaged in the use of a questionnaire and result in answers that
aren’t entirely truthful or accurate. Though prevention methods can be implemented using
Malhotra’s (2010) five guidelines in the wording of questionnaires:
1) Avoid ambiguous words
2) Define the issue
3) Use ordinary words

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4) Use positive and negative statements
5) Avoid leading questions
Data derived from quantitative data can fail to gather the attitudes and perceptions of the
respondents but will instead provide numerical descriptions.
Surveys
A common method of quantitative data collection is the use of a survey. A survey involves
administering questionnaires to a pre-determined sample of respondents (Bennett, 2013).
Certain steps need to be undertaken when using a survey, these are: sampling and sample
selection; selection of the communication medium; designing and producing the
questionnaire; maximising responses whilst minimising the occurrence of error; distribution
of the questionnaire and finally processing and analysing the data. Questions within a survey
can be open-ended or closed-ended; closed ended questions are more commonly used
when seeking to gather quantitative data using such answering choices as semantic scales
and tick boxes. The distribution of questionnaires doesn’t have to be in person and in paper
format; the distribution can also be done via the internet using social networks or emails.
Choosing to use the internet for questionnaire distribution can lead to cost savings for the
research as there is no need to print onto large quantities of paper.
Using a survey and a sample provides ease when generalising the data to the larger
population. For a researcher a survey presents the opportunity to collect a large amount of
respondents in a small amount of time as time and cost constraints are common in many
research processes (Bennett, 2013). Though being cheap to produce and distribute,
questionnaires designs can be inflexible; this can result in the inability to be altered or
adapted during the research. Surveys are also not entirely applicable when researching
issues that are personal and intrusive to the respondent as well as issues of a controversial
nature. For personal discussions qualitative research is recommended utilising alternate
methods of quantitative data collections such as personal interviews or telephone interviews.
3.2 Qualitative Research
Gordon and Langmaid (1988) state that qualitative research is “essentially concerned with
understanding things rather than measuring”. Qualitative research seeks to enter the minds
and hearts of consumers and understand mental process (Bennett, 2013). The use of
qualitative methods successfully will seek to create and explore hypothesis rather than test
them (Benett, 2013). Qualitative research is useful for getting beyond the rational in which

21. 21
will allow the researcher to access unconscious, private or repressed thoughts and feelings.
This form of data collection is to uncover the meaning behind the words, ultimately gaining a
better understanding of the consumer’s mental processes. Differing from quantitative
research qualitative research uses fewer respondents but the time period of the collection is
usually longer. Methods of data collection used in qualitative research can be more flexible,
focus groups and in-depth interviews allow the researcher to avoid rigid responses and
acquire personal feelings and attitudes.
Strengths
Qualitative research is particularly useful when seeking to obtain culturally specific
information regarding the opinions, behaviours and values of a particular population.
Qualitative research is very useful in understanding consumer purchasing behaviour;
proposing and developing new products in qualitative research is a useful way to gather the
attitudes of consumers towards the product. The results received from qualitative research
can be extended into segments with similar characteristics, therefore gaining an extended
and more complex understanding of a specific social context. Open-ending questioning
under qualitative research can be useful for researchers as it comes away from the stringent
nature of multiple choice questions and allows respondents to reply in their own words.
Responses from open questions will be less restricted and allow them to provide their inner
most feelings and opinions with freedom of expression. A researchers ability to probe for
answers in qualitative data collection means the data gathered is more elaborate and easier
to acquire more reliable and in-depth data. The use of a sample over a census is usually
used in qualitative research; due to the smaller nature of the populations the researcher can
reap a large cost benefit.
Limitations
As there is often a variation of responses when gathering information using qualitative
methods it is seemingly difficult to compare certain variables (Sofaer, 2002). The occurrence
of bias is not uncommon in the use of qualitative research techniques, both from the
participant and the researcher. Though bias is built upon person’s heuristics it is often
unavoidable within research (Malhotra, 2002). Bias can be reduced by using a skilled
researcher or interviewer when using in-depth interviews.
Focus groups
Focus groups usually comprise of around 5-10 respondents, most commonly the sample is
selected using non-probability sampling methods. The aim of a focus group is usually to

22. 22
generate hypothesis for quantitative testing. The duration of a focus group is usually until the
moderator decides a sufficient amount of information has been acquired. The focus group is
usually led by a moderator who is there to pose questions, stimulate discussion and ensure
all members of the focus group contribute. Focus groups are useful for collecting information
and opinions on new products and developing hypothesis based on the consensus reached
by the participants. Focus groups allow the moderator to use visual aids and probe the group
for answers as to gather relevant information required for the research.
A focus group is good for gathering personal data although the need for a skilled moderator
is apparent. If there is poor rapport between the participants and the moderator it can lead to
information that isn’t entirely reliable or unintentionally poor (Malhotra, 2002). Malhotra
(2010) states that the atmosphere during focus groups is to be relaxed and permissive to
ensure the most open and spontaneous responses. A successful focus group will adhere to
Gordon’s Goodthinking framework in which certain factors must be addressed for best result,
these factors include: refreshments; incentives; location; demographic; duration; venue and
seating (Malhotra, 2002). A group environment can also cause certain participants to
become shy and more dominant participants to take control of the discussion; it is therefore
down to the moderator to prevent these issues from arising during the focus group.
Strengths
An advantage to focus groups is that they promote creativity and spontaneity and also
highlight cultural and social influences. They can be very quick and cost efficient and a range
of topics can be touched upon (McDaniel and Gates, 2005). Stimulations and probing can be
utilised by the moderator to prompt better results.
Limitations
Strong personalities can dominate the focus groups as well as repress other participants of
the group (Bennett, 2013). Additionally group members can feel negatively towards the
moderator and choose not to give the most open opinions. To further this, the need of a
good moderator is needed to enforce the aforementioned methods when regulating the
focus group (Bennett, 2013). Certain topics are inappropriate to discuss in a group
atmosphere, therefore the topic range isn’t as large as an in-depth interview for example.
The results derived from the focus group can be deemed inconclusive and fail to be a clear
representation of the larger population (Malhotra, 2010).
In-depth Interview

23. 23
The purpose of in-depth interviews is to explore experiences, beliefs, views and motivations
of an individual on particular matters (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007). In-depth interviews
consist of open-ended unstructured questions in which rapport can be built between the
interviewer and the participant, a lot of qualitative data can be extracted and engage
freedom of expression (Bennett, 2013). In-depth interviews give the interviewer the ability to
push and probe for answers as well as gaining comprehensive information due to the one-to-
one nature of the interview. An in-depth interview is usually for a longer period of time such
as one hour and is orientated towards penetrating below the superficial and understanding
social phenomenon’s that quantitative research would fail to gather (Bennett, 2013). The
types of depth interviews are: mini-depth; semi-structured interviews and paired
interviews/triangular interviews (McDaniel and Gates, 2005).
Strengths
A strength of using depth interviews are that intimate matters can be expressed and
discussed and there is no element of group pressure (Bennett, 2013). It is also easier to
recruit for a depth interview and the response given by the individual is directly associated
with that individual (Bennett, 2013). The dynamics of the depth interview means that a
greater depth of the issue can be acquired and a strong interviewer will be able to delve
further on the issue.
Limitations
A key problem that arises when using a depth interview qualitative method is that it is highly
dependent on the skill of the interviewer; the lack of structure applies more emphasis on the
interviewer’s interpretation (Bennett, 2013). Depth interviews are often costly and time
consuming for the researcher and the information derived can be ‘soft’ and difficult to
analyse (Malhotra and Birks et al, 2012).
3.3 Ethnography
An observation method that can be undertaken is ethnographic research in which the
researcher observes and usually creates field notes. In ethnographic observations the
researcher is the tool and he/she has to decide where to devote attention when observing
the environment they are in. Gathering information related to the behaviours of consumers
and witnessing authentic behaviour (Bryman and Burgess, 1999). Although the researcher

24. 24
can gain a more applied view of the information that he/she is seeking it can be time
consuming and easily misinterpreted.
3.4 Sampling
A sample is a subset of the population of interest in which the key goal when selecting is for
the sample to be as representative as possible. The major considerations when designing a
sample are who, where, when and how (Malhotra and Birks et al, 2012). A sample is most
commonly chosen in research over a census; a census involves using all available elements
of a defined population (Malhotra, 2010). A sample requires a smaller budget and population
than a census. The sampling process involves:
1) Defining the population by specifying time, extent and elements
2) Identifying the sampling frame, deciding where the respondents are to be found
3) Deciding on the size of the sample
4) Selecting either a probability or non-probability sampling procedure
5) Physically selecting the sample
The two forms of sample techniques are probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling involves the population having a fixed probabilistic chance of being
selected (Malhotra, 2010). Non-probability sampling relies on researcher’s personal
judgement rather than using chance procedures (Malhotra, 2010). The four forms of
probability sampling are:
 Simple random sampling: every element within the population has an equal
probability of selection
 Systematic sampling: a random starting point is selected then every element is
picked in succession
 Stratified sampling: a two-step process in which the population is divided into sub
populations
 Cluster sampling: the target population is divided into sub population groups of
similar homogenous groups
The four types of non-probability sampling are:
 Convenience sampling: a ‘right place, right time’ approach is implemented

25. 25
 Judgemental sampling: respondents are chosen based on the researchers
judgement
 Quota sampling: a two-stage process in which the first stage consists of taking
control of a characteristic such as age yet the second step is selected on
convenience
 Snowball sampling: an initial participant or group is chosen then the participant or
group leads to people who possess the desired characteristics
Error
There are two types of error that can occur in the undertaking of research, sampling error
and error outside of the sampling process. Sampling error stems from the use of a sample
rather than a whole population (Creswell, 2013). Differences in the samples values and the
underlying population’s values can occur and result in the sample being a misrepresentation.
A sampling error is not as severe as an error when using a census as increasing the size of
the sample will decrease the risk of sampling error (Malhotra, 2010). Sampling errors are
easier to control than non-sampling errors as they are measurable. Unlike sampling errors,
non-sampling errors can be frequent, of unknown direction and magnitude resulting in them
being more difficult to measure and detect.
3.5 Chosen Method
A mixed-method approach will be applied to this particular research with more of an
emphasis on qualitative data collection as to gain an understanding of the behaviour,
attitudes and motivations of football consumers. Previous studies in the area of brand loyalty
and consumer behaviour in sport have been qualitative and rightly so as they test the hearts
and minds of participants. Bryman (1988) argues a ‘best of both worlds’ approach,
combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Triangulation is the
combination of multiple research methods in a study to examine the same phenomenon
(Denzin and Lincoln, 1998). The use of triangulation is particularly useful in studies of social
sciences; the study will be into the behaviours of football consumers therefore triangulation
has been selected (Jack and Raturi, 2006). In theory the use of triangulation in a study

26. 26
should counterbalance the strengths and weaknesses in each approach and provide a
statistical data that can be aligned to the qualitative findings (Jack and Raturi, 2006).
Limitations
Due to the unstructured nature of the four in-depth interviews it is highly reliant on
interviewer skill. As the researcher (myself) lacks the necessary experience and skill
personal interpretation of the respondents answers can cause problems to arise in the
validity of the data collected. A further limitation of the interviews is if the researcher is
unable to build rapport with the participant that individual may be less willing to give more
intimate and personal answers. In ethnographic research again there is an emphasis on the
observer as they may misconstrue the environmental on-goings. To attempt to reduce these
limitations the interviews will be undertaken in a relaxed manner and interview bias will be
attempted to be kept to a minimum.
Limitations of the questionnaire lay in sampling error. The sample could not be a clear
representation of wider population, the sample size for the quantitative research is fifty
respondents. As there is a larger emphasis on qualitative collections methods fifty should
suffice as a clear representation. The use of non-probability quota sampling uses the
judgement of the researcher and can also lead to a sample that isn’t as representative as
possible (Malhotra and Birks et al, 2012). As Malhotra (2010) states that respondents are
less willing to respond to a large quantity of questions on a questionnaire, the questionnaire
created will consist of twelve questions.
3.6 Ethical Considerations
The Hunt-Vitell (1986) model of ethical decision making addresses the ethical situation faced
by the decision maker in the study; in this case the researcher will be the sole decision
maker (Malhotra, 2010). Utilising the Hunt-Vitell model the researcher will ensure such
factors as the cultural environment and perceived consequences are considered (Vitell and
Singhapakdi et al., 2001). The anonymity of the questionnaire respondents will be protected
as they will not have to disclose their name nor the organisation they work for. One of the
four in-depth interviews will be with a person under the age of eighteen; therefore there will
be a proposed twin-interview with the individuals parent. The twin interview is proposed as to
avoid the use of a consent form, ultimately saving time. All four in-depth interviews will
ensure that the participants names aren’t revealed although the two players that are to be
interviewed will be revealing the football club they play for. Consent has already been given
by the football club for the two footballers to participate in the study.

27. 27
The researcher of the study will be adhering to the ESOMAR code of conduct when
undertaking the marketing research (www.esomar.org, 2010). The four layers of the
ESOMAR code of conduct are: honesty; objectivity; transparency and confidentiality. The
code of conduct states that: researchers shall be honest and straightforward; researchers
shall be transparent about the subject and purpose of data collection; researchers shall
respect the confidentiality of information collected in their professional activities and
researchers shall respect the well-being and rights of all individuals (www.esomar.org,
2010).

28. 28
Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analysis
Qualitative research was undertaken first; the quantitative questionnaires then followed with
the questions formulated based on the results of the four interviews. The four selected
interviewees were two footballers who play for the football club Plymouth Argyle FC and the
other interviews were with two fans who regard Plymouth Argyle FC as their main supported
team. The use of the Plymouth Argyle facilities was authorised to interview the two
footballers was arranged to be undertaken during the first week of April. The fans were
interviewed in a familiar environment, this being their own houses respectively, these
interviews were also conducted on the first week of April. The four interviews were recorded
and transcripts produced with relevant quotes extracted for analysis (Appendix 2).
The questionnaire used the aforementioned non-probability quota sampling method in which
the first characteristic was defined; the screening characteristic was if they support Plymouth
Argyle FC (Appendix 3). The second section of the questionnaire entailed the use of
semantic scale questions, to which will be analysed using the Fishbein Equation to rate
consumers overall attitudes towards the match day experience (Solomon, 2006). The
attributes used for rating will be derived from the interviews with the two supporters. The
location of the distribution was outside Plymouth Argyle FC’s stadium one hour prior to the
kick-off of the game between Plymouth Argyle and Oxford United on the twelfth of April.
4.1 Qualitative Data
Club Loyalty
The first two interviews undertaken were with the two Plymouth Argyle footballers, followed
by the interviews with the two supporters of the club. The first port of call was if the
supporters in the ground affect the player’s performance and whether the fans feel they
affect the players performance, this was adhered to by both footballers stating:
Footballer 1: “if they are loud and singing it gives you a boost…
it’s hard to ignore the atmosphere in the ground”

29. 29
Footballer 2: “it’s better when you are at home and the fans are behind you, gives you
extra energy”
Supporter A concurred with the footballers statements saying:
“if we go one nil down and everyone is getting behind the team I reckon the players
see that and want to get back into the game”
This is befitting with Rein and Kotler et al’s (2012) findings who state that ‘ensnared fans’
feel their support affects the team. Ensnared fans are defined as the most involved of all
fans, supporter A encapsulates devotion, evidence being their attendance to as many away
games as possible and owning a season ticket. Supporter A also showed characteristics in
keeping with Mason’s (1999) ‘die hard’ fans whose continued support is apparent despite
poor match results. In reply to questioning regarding devotion to the club over the past
couple of financially stricken years that included back to back relegations Supporter A
replied:
“since we got relegated from the championship I know loads of people that haven’t
renewed their season tickets”
This implies that the poor results and relegations haven’t deterred them from attending
matches and support hasn’t been lost towards the club on their part. In conjunction with
Jones’ (1998) study in which he found that the success or failure does not affect the identity
of the supporter towards the club. The same cannot be said for supporter B, who not only
supports a successful premier league team (Chelsea) as well but also attended just 14
games last season of which none were away games. Supporter B also replied “probably”
when asked if they went to more games when Plymouth Argyle were in the championship.
Supporter B’s lack of attendance and more so after a run of relegations shows
characteristics of Tap and Clowes’ (2002) ‘repertoire’ fans whom only occasionally attend
games involving their team. The loss of attendance has also been noticed by the footballers,
more so with footballer 1 who has been at the club since they have fallen through the
leagues; footballer 1 stated:
“There’s obviously has been a drop in attendance”
When the footballers received questions on if they believed that the lack of attendance is
due to success factors, both footballers agreed stating:
Footballer 1: “they want to see success”

30. 30
Footballer 2: “When we go on a good run of form attendance picks up I guess that is
success based”
Success is defined as a factor under the ‘primary product’ for supporters by Blumrodt and
Bryson et al (2012) which is required by particular segments of supporters when attending
live matches. Alonso and O’shea (2013) found that consumers that aren’t defined as ‘die
hard’ fans would need to be enticed through the ‘primary product’ to attend games (Blumrodt
and Bryson et al, 2012). Therefore it could be said that the supporters that have stopped
attending matches since success has dropped at Plymouth Argyle could be segmented as
less loyal to the club than ‘die hard’ fans (Mason, 1999). Additionally Bridgewater and Stray
(2002) conclude that the success of the football team effects the fans emotionally. The loss
of attendees could be down to Plymouth Argyle underperforming when comparing their
league standing to the perceived stature and history of the club. Footballer 2 stated that:
“I was previously at another league 2 club…
they didn’t have the support that Plymouth did”
The larger attendance figures over other teams in the same league could lay in the history of
the club rather than success factors alone. This is backed by Chanavat and Bodet’s (2009)
findings that attraction is not just based on the clubs success but other factors such as a
long standing history.
A recent article in The Guardian by Stuart James (2012) found that on average ticket prices
have increased within the English football leagues. When seeking to understand whether
fleeting loyalty is apparent with the rise of ticket prices different feelings from the two
supporters emerged. The more devoted of the two (supporter A) described the rise in ticket
prices at Plymouth Argyle as “ a joke” though still renews their season ticket. Supporter A
therefore displays the phenomena ‘brand love’ under Merunka and Albert’s (2013) study in
which more committed consumers displaying such phenomena will still pay a premium price
for the product. Alternatively supporter B said that:
“Ticket prices are important because I would go more often if they were cheaper”
This is adhered to by Williams and Perkins (1998) who found that 70 per cent of people that
previously attended games but no longer do identify the rise in ticket pricing as the main
reason. Supporter B expressed that Plymouth Argyle’s ticket pricing and the league that
they’re in were the predominant reasons for loss of attendance.

31. 31
Supporter Behaviour
When questioned as to why the supporters chose to support Plymouth Argyle supporter B
responded with remarks directed towards the geographic location, this was also the case
with footballer 1 who not only plays for the club but has supported them all of their life.
Supporter B: “because I live here and most people I knew growing up supported
them”
Footballer 1: “I’m from Plymouth and have supported Plymouth all my life…
the badge represents their city”
Geographic location is also a part of a person’s identity and supports the link between
consumer and club (Rein and Kotler et al 2012), Funk and James, 2006). Attitude is formed
towards sports teams from social groups and family, especially in the early stages of a
person’s life (Donnelly and Young, 1988). Moreover following parents brand choices is a
relationship built on trust and loyalty (Kapferer, 2002), this is evident in the response of
supporter A, stating that their support for Plymouth Argyle stemmed from:
“my dad and older brother supported Plymouth…
“I was taken to Plymouth games when I was 5 by my dad”
Individuals seek to enhance social identity by affiliating themselves with attractive social
groups and portray cult like behaviours towards their football club (Fisher and Wakefield,
1998, Moutinho et al, 2008). Affiliation is rooted in social recognition; both supporters stated
that they attended matches with friends, with supporter B outlining that they wouldn’t attend
if their friends weren’t going:
Supporter B: “me and my mate go together…
if they aren’t going then I won’t go”
Supporter A: “I go with a couple mates”
This need to attend with friends makes belongingness needs evident under Maslow’s (1943)
Hierarchy of Needs model (Appendix 2.2) as well as supporters portraying needs for
affiliation within McClelland’s (1966) three need theory (Appendix 2.3) in which individuals
are motivated by a need for self-involvement (Maslow, 1954, Blythe, 2008). Additionally this
concurs with Fisher and Wakefield (1998) who identify tribalism or cult characteristics among

32. 32
football supporters. This can be seen as football supporters viewing the football club as their
‘extended self’ within consumer behaviour theory, in which individuals identify external
objects as an extended part of themselves. One unpinning of the extended self is groups
such as social groups that share interests, for example, supporters of the same football club
(Schiffman and Kanuk et al., 2010, Capper, 2013). Ex-Arsenal and Netherlands striker
Dennis Bergkamp also alluded to football forming part of a person’s identity as well as such
belongingness needs in a famous quote (Bergkamp, 2013):
“When you start supporting a football club, you don’t support it because of the
trophies, or a player, or a history, you support it because you found yourself there;
found a place where you belong”
The match experience can be distinguished as a form of entertainment and can evoke
consumer’s emotions during and after the match itself. Supporters showing high levels of
devotion or ‘die hard’ fans are more likely to be affected by the match result and will try to
rationalise bad performances with other factors that make their team good (Jones, 1998,
Mason 1999). This is evident in the words of supporter A who would be identified as a very
devoted supporter based on the aforesaid attendance loyalty, Supporter A implies that their
activities are altered if the team doesn’t win; taking a loss personally is backed up by
footballer 2:
Supporter A: “if we win [we] have more drinks after”
Footballer 2: “football is a form of entertainment and the supporters feel bad when we
lose just like we do”
As football is a form of entertainment it often features on television, this is less applicable to
Plymouth Argyle now that they have fallen from the Championship to League 2. Brand
loyalty can be seen in football if supporters pay to attend matches rather than watching it for
free on television. The devotion levels of the two supporters become more apparent when
asked if they would change their viewing habits if Plymouth Argyle games feature on
television:
Supporter A: “No I’d still go to home and away matches”
Supporter B: “I would watch them on that rather than paying more and going to the
matches”
This argues against the findings of Rein and Kotler et al (2012) who state that regardless of
a consumer’s loyalty towards a club they don’t have the incentives to attend matches due to

33. 33
the alternative methods of watching the games. It can be stated that devoted ‘die hard’ fans,
such as supporter A, will attend the match even if it featured on television; this is furthered in
their desire to continue attending games despite the ticket price increase. Similar to the
feelings of Supporter A the ethnographic research unveiled an extreme sense of loyalty sang
throughout the terraces, “we’re Argyle ‘till we die, we’re Argyle ‘till we die” among the most
common of chants that implied loyalty. Footballer 1 suggests that the increase of television
broadcasting has seen more consumers attracted to successful Premier League teams:
“Teams like Man city, Liverpool and Chelsea are always on TV and always winning so
I can see why people would be attracted to support those teams”
Supporter B, who stated that they would prefer to watch games on television fits into this
category alluded to by Footballer 1 as they support a successful team in the Premier League
as well as Plymouth Argyle:
“I support Chelsea as well”
Footballer 2 bluntly states that those who don’t support their local team yet support a
successful top team are “glory hunting”, glory hunting is where a person seeks to bask in the
success of a particular team. It can be argued that such consumers displaying ‘glory hunting’
characteristics are motivated by the aforementioned belongingness needs under the
hierarchy of needs by Maslow (1943) alongside McClelland’s (1966) need for affiliation. This
is vastly apparent within football with successful premier league teams having large
followings regardless of geographic location.
Live Match Attributes
The final questions posed in the interviews with both supporters centred on what they
believe to be important when attending live matches and how they believe such factors are
fulfilled at Plymouth Argyle games. Lowly devoted supporter B stated numerous aspects of
attending live matches as important, pricing seemed to be a pertinent issue:
“I like to wear my Plymouth…
its pretty expensive”
“The tickets should be cheaper”

34. 34
Supporter B wasn’t too concerned on the overall match result but outlined the atmosphere
and match experience with friends more prudent:
“don’t want a boring game…
I’d rather have a thrilling game from start to end and the result be a draw”
This follows on from work by Blumrodt and Bryson et al, 2012 and Mason (1999) in that
supporters enjoy good atmosphere and stadium attendance and such less devoted fans
require enticement. Supporter B stressed the importance of good facilities, and appreciates
assistive staff.
“it would be nicer if they [toilets] were better…
staff are pretty helpful which is nice”
The final attribute of the match day experience outlined by the interviewer was the players.
Supporter B found players to be important but only in terms of relating back to their earlier
point of the game atmosphere; reinforcing the emphasis on game atmosphere and the
overall experience:
“I don’t recognise the players anymore...
If they are good on the day and make the match better…
that’s important”
The statement on the recognisability links to the work of Bodet and Chanavat (2009) who
found consumers looking for ‘star’ players in their team to form a club asset. On the other
hand supporter A identified different aspects of the live match they find important. The most
important was the result of the match even if it was through a playing style they didn’t
approve of; this implies that there is less importance on the entertainment of the game.
Additionally, contrasting supporter B’s feelings, high importance is placed on the players:
“I wanna see the players put a shift in…
winning is the most important thing even if it is through long ball football”
Conforming with their earlier characteristics on being a devoted supporter they also saw the
ticket prices as something not considered important; the same can be said for the stadium
facilities and staff:
“I’m not too fussed on the facilities or the stewards…
ticket prices I don’t care that much about”

35. 35
The final point of importance made by supporter A was the need for a “cheap half time
pasty” thus stadium refreshment pricing was included in the questionnaires semantic scale
section. The other attributes derived from the interviews with the supporters that were placed
on the questionnaire were:
- Stadium facilities
- Stadium staff assistance
- Player quality
- Ticket pricing
- Club merchandise pricing
- Stadium refreshment pricing
- Game atmosphere
- Game Quality
- Match Result

36. 36
4.2 Quantitative Findings
The above graphs represent the basic demographics in attendance at Plymouth Argyle
football matches. The largest age cohort in attendance was between 31 and 40 with just 11
per cent of the attendees being under 20. Only 5 per cent of respondents were female, this
was also noticeable in the ethnographic research. Though this mere 5 per cent is more than
there would have been in the past as women are more becoming increasingly welcomed as
paying supporters by clubs (Dobson, 2003).
11%
25%
30%
20%
14%
Age Demographics
Below 20 20-30 31-40 41-50 51+
Male
95%
Female
5%
Gender
Demographics
Figure 1: Basic Demographics

37. 37
Fishbein Equation
- Ao = Attitude towards the brand (club)
- bi = the individuals belief about the brand’s (clubs) custody of the attribute
- ei = the evaluation of whether the attribute is good or bad
- n = the limited number (n) of attributes considered by the individual
(Solomon, 2006)
The questionnaire respondents will be segmented by their loyalty and separate attitude
totals using the Fishbein Equation will be produced for each segment to assess how suited
Plymouth Argyle are to that specific segmentation of supporter. The Fishbein Equation will
assist in the understanding of the motivation for attending Plymouth Argyle games for
supporters with differing devotion levels. The first of the three segments based on devotion
levels will be those supporters that attend 0 – 20 games involving Plymouth Argyle a season,
supporter B would fall into this segment; this segment will be labelled LD (low devotion). The
second segment will be those supporters who attend 21-40 games a season; this segment
will be named MD (medium devotion). The final segment will be labelled HD (high devotion)
and will comprise of those supporters that attend 41 or more games per season involving
Plymouth Argyle, such as supporter A.
After undertaking the two interviews with the supporters of Plymouth Argyle it is evident that
they possess different levels of loyalty in terms of attending live matches. Certain questions
in the interviews were directed towards what each supporter finds important when attending
live matches; the attributes they found to be important were placed onto the questionnaire in
the form of a semantic scale; the first semantic scale section will be how important they find
each attribute when attending a live football match, this will form the importance (ei) for each
segment of supporters. The second semantic scale section will provide answers on how

38. 38
satisfied the respondents are with these attributes at Plymouth Argyle match days; this will
form the beliefs (bi) for each segment. Three tables will be produced based on the Fishbein
Equation, the attitude total for each segment will reveal how suited the Plymouth Argyle
match day experience is to each segment of supporters. Averages were derived from each
of the semantic scale questions for each segment then multiplied by two and rounded to a
whole number as to get an attribute rating out of ten to be more applicable in the Fishbein
Equation.

39. 39
Table 1: Fishbein Equation Low Devotion Results
Beliefs (bi)
Attribute (n) Importance (ei) LD
Stadium Facilities 8 4
Game Atmosphere 7 7
Player Quality 6 2
Ticket Pricing 9 3
Club Merchandise Pricing 8 4
Stadium Refreshment
Pricing
7 6
Attitude Score 194

40. 40
Table 2: Fishbein Equation Medium Devotion Results
Beliefs (bi)
Attribute (n) Importance (ei) MD
Stadium Facilities 6 3
Game Atmosphere 9 8
Player Quality 9 3
Ticket Pricing 8 3
Club Merchandise Pricing 4 3
Stadium Refreshment
Pricing
5 4
Attitude Score 173

41. 41
Table 3: Fishbein Equation High Devotion Results
Beliefs (bi)
Attribute (n) Importance (ei) HD
Stadium Facilities 3 2
Game Atmosphere 5 7
Player Quality 9 7
Ticket Pricing 3 4
Club Merchandise Pricing 6 4
Stadium Refreshment
Pricing
7 8
Attitude Score 196

42. 42
The segment with the highest attitude total was the highly devoted supporters of Plymouth
Argyle though surprisingly the supporters with the lowest levels of devotion didn’t have the
lowest attitude total; this instead was held by supporters who display medium levels of
devotion. The low attitude score among the medium devotion segment suggests that certain
attributes aren’t fulfilled at Plymouth Argyle matches. As identified in the studies of Blumrodt
and Bryson et al (2012) there is a need for certain factors to coax supporters that don’t
attend every game to be in attendance; the medium devotion attitude score distinguishes a
need for such factors or attributes to be improved for more regular attendance.
Surprisingly the lowest devotion segment had a relatively high attitude score; this suggests
that the Plymouth Argyle match day experience may not be the sole factor deterring them
from attending matches. Though lowly devoted supporters found ticket prices to be
unsatisfactory at Plymouth Argyle, this is not only in conjunction with the interviewed
supporter from the same segment but the work of Morrow (2003) who implied ticket pricing is
a key cause of preventing game attendance. Moreover the results link closely to the work of
Williams and Perkins (1998) in that the ticket pricing at Plymouth Argyle is the main reason
for supporters not attending; ticket pricing scored second lowest in the beliefs (bi) for lowly
devoted supporters. The lowly devoted segments beliefs on the players quality at Plymouth
Argyle was very unsatisfied, this is adhered to by Chanavat and Bodet (2009) who suggest
that supporters ‘take a shine’ to teams with great players; therefore if Plymouth Argyle had
better quality players the lowly devoted supporters may be more inclined to attend. The lowly
devoted supporters could also be classified as ‘flaneurs’, outlined by Giulittio (2002) as
holding a more market based relationship with the club; this is apparent in the high
importance figure displayed for the club merchandise pricing attribute.
The findings show that stadium facilities aren’t important for consumers showing high levels
of devotion to Plymouth Argyle; similarly this was adhered to in the interview with the highly
devoted supporter. This could be explained by consumers in this segment being more
focussed on the match itself and the match result rather than the whole experience. Ticket
pricing among highly devoted supporters was again found to be of low importance furthering
the interview findings, this is backed by Merunka and Albert (2013) who state that
consumers that are committed to a brand are more willing to pay a premium price.

43. 43
Figure 2: Match Experience
As there is emphasis on the match experience itself it is therefore important to compare what
each segment of supporters finds most important on match day. This radar graph displays
the differences in importance among match day attributes. All three segments of devotion
tenure high importance on the quality of the game; this is supported by both interviewed
supporters who identified a quality drop in gameplay at Plymouth Argyle matches as a
problem. Further similarities include all three segments wishing to see good quality players
when observing a live match. Game atmosphere is noted by Blumrodt and Bryson et al
(2012) as crucial for a positive customer experience, although this is argued in the
quantitative findings as highly devoted supporters hold more importance on such attributes
as the match result for a positive experience. A pattern is apparent in the graph showing that
the higher level of devotion a supporter holds the lower importance they hold on the
atmosphere within the stadium.
As aforementioned ticket pricing is much more important for less devoted supporters
whereas supporters attending 41 matches or more a season continue to attend regardless of
price increases. All three segments of supporters found the quality of the game to be of
importance, to which is important to incline supporters to attend (Mason, 1999). All three
0
1
2
3
4
5
Game Quality
Game Atmosphere
Player QualityMatch result
Ticket Pricing
Match Experience
LD
MD
HD

44. 44
segments identified the quality of the players as an important element when present at a
Plymouth Argyle match.
Figure 3: Plymouth Argyle Support
Differences in loyalties that lay in the supporting of Plymouth Argyle among the segments
are further apparent under questioning of whether Plymouth Argyle are their main supported
team. 100 per cent of highly devoted supporters stated that their main supported team is
Plymouth Argyle; this segmentation of loyalty can be compared to Tap and Clowes (2002)
segmentation of ‘one club’ fans, medium and lowly devoted fans can be compared to
‘repertoire’ fans that engage in multi brand usage. For the respondents that wouldn’t
consider Plymouth Argyle their main supported team, the clubs outlined as main supported
teams were: Chelsea; Stoke City; Arsenal and two said Manchester United. With the
exception of Stoke City, these teams would be considered successful within English football;
these findings are in conjunction with Chanavat and Bodet’s (2009) study in which
consumers are aware of ‘big’ English football clubs, this awareness factor plays a vital part in
choosing to support a team. Consumers are globally aware of large clubs in English football,
such as Manchester United; this caters for the initial ‘awareness’ step on the hierarchy of
effects model (Blythe, 2008).
75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
HD
MD
LD
Plymouth Argyle Support
Main Supported Team
Not Main Supported
Team

45. 45
Table 4: Attendance Affiliation
Friends Family Alone Friends/Family Friends/Alone Family/Alone
12 5 0 37 0 2
This table shows the company that supporters from all levels of devotion attend games with.
There is a clear preference for consumers to attend football games with either their family or
friends. No respondents admitted only attending matches alone yet two stated that they go
alone or with family. This predominant decision to make an appearance at live matches with
friends/family portrays the aforesaid McClelland’s (1966) need for affiliation, such
motivational needs focus on relationships, this is furthered in the qualitative research where
both supporters state a preference to attend games with friends. Affiliation, it could be
stated, accounts for a key motivational aspect on why consumers attend football matches.

46. 46
Figure 4: Support Duration
Over 45 per cent of the low devotion segment stated that they had supported Plymouth
Argyle for between 6 and 10 years, the pattern of this segments line shows that those that
only attend a handful of games a season have supported Plymouth for a shorter period of
time. Opposing this line is the duration of support unveiled by the highly devoted supporters
of whom 67 per cent have supported Plymouth Argyle for longer than 16 years. Of the
supporters that attend between 21 and 40 games a season 38 per cent have supported the
club for over 16 years. A possible reason for the lack of attendance could be the rise in ticket
pricing, had the ticket prices not increased the medium devotion segment may be in the
highly devoted segment (Williams and Perkins, 1998). Furthermore, of the supporters
showing medium devotion 52 per cent have supported the team for 10 years or less; a direct
correlation between support duration and game attendance. Therefore if consumers within
the segment of medium devotion continue their support it seems likely that they will progress
to the segment of highly devoted supporters. It is evident that the graph indicates a positive
correlation between attendance and years of support.
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00
<=5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 >=21
Percentage
Years
Support Duration
LD
MD
HD

47. 47
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion
Objective 1: To identify segments of football supporters
In keeping with previous studies it is apparent that when segmenting supporters of football
there are noticeable distinctions in behaviour. The segmentation approach was derived from
the initial qualitative interviews as it was evident that based on consumer loyalty there were
different attitudes and emotions towards their supported football team. The high devotion
segment showed distinct characteristics of ‘one club’ and ‘die hard’ fans (Mason 1999, Tap
and Clowes 2002). Concurrence between the characteristics of the highly devoted
interviewed supporter and the beliefs of the same segment of respondents was also dually
noted when deconstructing the gathered data. The data shows that highly devoted
consumers have more than just a psychological attachment to the club but also an emotional
one; the club is also shown to be part of highly devoted supporter’s identity. A key attribute
of a person’s identity is often the geographic location that they were born in or live in, as in
this study the geographic location is represented by the football club it is therefore an
extension of their identity (Fisher and Wakefield, 1998). The extremely loyal highly devoted
segment was found to view their club as more than just a brand, but an extension of
themselves (Blythe, 2008).
The low devotion segment surprisingly scored the second highest attitude total on the
Fishbein Equation showing that they are relatively suited to the attributes of the Plymouth
Argyle match day experience. Their lack of attendance could be explained in the ticket price
increases; a preference to watch better quality football on television and engaging in multi
brand usage (Tap and Clowes 2002). Their choice to support as more successful clubs
within English football alongside Plymouth Argyle could be down to the larger holding of
brand equity under Keller’s consumer-based brand equity model (Appendix 1.1).
Furthermore such clubs as Manchester United, when operating as brands, consumers are
more aware of therefore pushing consumers through the hierarchy of effects model quicker
(Solomon, 2006). Moreover, awareness is a key dimension of brand equity (Aaker, 1991).
Objective 2: To unveil consumers motivation for attending live matches
Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs (Appendix 1.1) enables the ability to comprehend
supporter’s motivation for attending football matches, the selected sample showed

48. 48
indications of belongingness needs as they predominantly attend with friends. Furthermore
need for affiliation was identified within the qualitative research (McClelland, 1966) among
low and medium devotion supporters affiliating themselves with likeminded individuals
showing signs of tribalism; such tribalism was observed during the ethnographic research
also with supporters communicating to complete strangers through both sharing the same
opinions on the football match (Moutinho et al, 2008). Such supporters it can be said based
on the findings are less likely to attend if they are not among likeminded individuals; there’s
more emphasis on the day out and “having a laugh” than there is on the actual match or the
team.
Success, it was found, is vital for a large support base. For high devotion supporters success
is not obligatory for continued attendance; though success could see low and medium
devotion fans become highly devoted fans. Being in a higher league it seems will also see
more highly devoted fans as low and medium devotion fans move through the segments,
whereas further relegations will not see supporters in the highly devoted segment fall into the
other two segments.
Objective 3: How is brand loyalty unique among football supporters?
Portrayal of unique brand loyalty was apparent throughout the study, especially comparing
the consumption of football entertainment to alternative brands purchased by consumers.
For example, the ethnographic research revealed a number of tattoos of the football clubs
crest on supporters. To have another brand inked onto your body is a notion that would be
considered absurd. Such tattoos could be a further indication of the football club forming
part of a consumer’s identity; this could perhaps be considered the ultimate expression of
brand devotion.
Highly devoted fans are evidently loyal to their club, the most befitting findings is their
continued match attendance despite ticket price increases and success decreases. Highly
devoted fans back their team to the hilt, though lowly devoted fans will opt to watch the
game on television; lowly devoted supporters are in keeping with Kerr and Gladden’s (2008)
‘satellite’ fans. Attitudes can form how loyal an individual is to a brand partly comes from
groups such as family and peers, following parents brands was found to be prominent within
the football industry reinforcing the family influence on consumer attitude.
Objective 4: To display the emotional attachment consumers have towards football clubs

49. 49
It was found that the attachment between club and consumers more than just success based
in the case of the highly devoted segment; furthermore the match result dictates social
activity. Classical conditioning under stimulus response models is often used by marketers to
associate the brand with a persona or an identity, though in football it seems that consumers
have an emotional attachment to geographic locations represented by the football club.
Therefore the emotions felt for the place they are from are conditioned onto the
representative football club (Blythe, 2008, Capper, 2013).
Furthering Bridgewater and Strays (2002) findings the emotional response evoked by the
football clubs success is less significant in the segment of the highly devoted fans. Though
the emotional affects are apparent when such supporters alter their extra-curricular activities
based on the match result, this was evident in the qualitative findings. The ‘brand love’
model is applicable to football fans showing high levels of devotion as they are constantly
engaging in conversation about their football club and even more prominently on match day
itself.
Limitations and Future Studies
The more pertinent limitation is that this study was produced based on a particular club
which makes generalisation difficult, especially among larger, more successful football clubs.
A further limitation in regards to generalisation is that a relatively small respondent base was
used and only collected outside the stadium on match day. Lowly devoted fans that prefer to
watch games on television could be studied into as to how football clubs can entice them to
attend live matches. Plymouth Argyle FC are also an English football club, therefore a study
could be undertaken that studies supporter behaviour in another country and compared to
English supporters.
Word Count: 13,488

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