Organizational Development

Prepared By Pratiksha Patil

Academy of Management &
Professional Development. 1

Sr no. Chapter Pg no

1. Introduction to OD 4-7

2. Historical background of OD 8-23

3. Foundations of OD 24-41

4. Managing OD Process 42-72

5. OD Interventions 73-95

6. Training Experience 96-113

7. Issues in Consultant-Client Relations 114-128

Academy of Management & Professional
Development. 2

Sr no. Content

8. Action Research & OD 129-135

9. Power, Politics & OD 136-162

10. Future of OD 163-185


O. D. is the act, process or result of
furthering, advancing, or promoting the
growth of an organization


Definition of O.D.by Edgar Schein

An organization is the planned coordination of the
activities of a number of people for the achievement of some
common explicit purpose or goals through the division of labour
and function, and through a hierarchy of authority and
responsibility.

Development is the act, process, result or state of being
developed-which in turn means to advance, to promote the
growth of, to evolve the possibility of, to further, to improve or to
enhance something.

Two elements stand out viz.
(a)Development may be an act, process or an end state
(b)Development means bettering something


The O. D. Approach to Change treats the organization as a
system.
A system is an orderly group of logically related parts, principles
and beliefs. Alternatively, it is a grouping or arrangement that
relate or interact with each other in such a way as to form a
whole.
Thus this approach has the following characteristics:
(a) Total view not a limited view
(b) Relationship between the Orgn. and the environment
and the internal dynamics of the Orgn.
(c) Teams-temporary, semi-permanent and permanent-
continous improvement
(d) Inter-personal Communication
(e) Individuals- self awareness and self acceptance-developing
skills, knowledge and ability of individuals


The characteristics of O. D. are:

1. It is a planned strategy to bring about
organizational change
2. OD always involves a collaborative approach
to change
3. OD programmes include an emphasis an
ways to improve & enhance performance.
4. OD relies on a set of humanistic values
about people & organization.
5. OD represents a system approach


History of OD
(1) T-group
(2) Survey Feedback Technology
Four major stems of OD
(3) Action research
(4) Productivity & Quality of work life

(1) T-Group (Laboratory Training) – participants learn from
their own actions and the group‘s evolving dynamics

(2) Developing reliable questionnaires, collecting data from
personnel, analyzing it for trends, and feeding the results back
to everyone for action planning

(3) Diagnosing, taking action, re-diagnosing and taking new
action

(4) Integrate social requirements of employees with technical
requirements needed to do work in provided environment.

Revolutionary Values & Beliefs of OD
Organic systems (mutual confidence & trust) rather than mechanical
systems (authority-obedience) …. Warren Bennis

Basic units of change are groups, not individuals …. Richard Beckhard

Away from resisting and fearing individual differences towards accepting
and utilizing them …. Robert Tannenbaum

Trust and respect for individual
Open communication
Radical departure from Decentralized decision making
accepted values and
beliefs of 1960‘s Collaboration and cooperation
Appropriate use of powers
Authentic interpersonal relationships


C
LABORATORY TRAINING U
R
R
E
SURVEY RESEARCH FEEDBACK N
T

O
ACTION RESEARCH
D

P
PRODUCTIVITY QUALITY OF WORK LIFE R
A
C
T
I
C
E

Laboratory training began in 1946, when Kurt Levin was
asked for help in research on training community leaders
A workshop was developed and the community leaders were
brought together
At the end of each session the researchers discussed the
behaviors they had observed
Thus the first T-group was formed in which people reacted to
data about their own behavior


The researchers drew two conclusion about this first
T- group experiment

 Feedback about group interaction was a rich learning
experience
 The process of “group building” had potential for
learning that could be transferred to “back home”
situations
Applying T-group techniques to organizations
gradually became known as team building


 The action research contribution began in 1940
 The research needed to be closely linked to the actions
 A collaborative effort was made, to collect the
organizational data
 To analyze the cause of the problem and then to device
and implement a solution
 Further data was collected to asses the results


 Participative management is a means of getting
employees involved in planning and managing change
Four types of management systems
 Exploitative authoritative system
 Benevolent authoritative systems
 Consultative systems
 Participative group


 Likert
applied system 4 to organization using a survey
feedback process

 Which asked the members about the present and the
ideal conditions about the organization

 Generatedaction plans to move the organization
towards system 4 condition


 The contribution of QWL can be explained in two
phases
 This phase was developed in Europe in 1950 based on
the research of Eric Trist.
 This program involved developing a work design
which aimed at better integrating technology and
people
 Participation by unions and management in the work
design
 The distinguishing characteristics of this program was
developing self managing groups


 Thesecond phase of QWL continues under the banner
of employee involvement

 Employee contribution helps in running the
organization so that it can be more flexible, productive
and competitive


Second-Generation OD

Organization Transformation

Organizational Culture

Learning Organization

Total Quality Management

Visioning and Future Search

Business Process Reengineering

Quality of Work Life


A set of values, assumptions, and beliefs constitutes an
integral part of OD, shaping the goals and methods of the
field and distinguishing OD from other improvement
strategies.
Most of these beliefs were formulated early in the
development of the field, and they continue to evolve as the
field itself evolves.
A belief is
- a proposition about how the world works that the individual
accepts as true;
- a cognitive fact for the person.
Values are also beliefs, and are defined as ―Beliefs about what
is a desirable or a good (e.g., free speech) and what is an
undesirable or a bad (e.g., dishonesty) values‖.
Assumptions are beliefs that are regarded as
- so valuable and obviously correct,
- that they are taken for granted, and
- rarely examined or questioned.

Thus, values, assumptions, and beliefs are all:
- cognitive facts or propositions, with
- values being beliefs about being good and bad, and
- assumptions being strongly held, relatively unexamined beliefs
accepted as the truth.
Values, assumptions, and beliefs provide structure and stability
for people as they attempt to understand the world around them.
OD values and assumptions developed from:
- research and theory by behavioral scientists, and
- from the experiences and observations of practicing managers.
OD values tend to be humanistic, optimistic, and democratic.

3/23/2012 21

Humanistic values proclaim the importance of the individual:
respect the whole person,
treat people with respect and dignity,
assume that everyone has intrinsic worth,
view all people as having the potential for growth and
development,
- these beliefs flow from humanistic values.
Optimistic values post that:
people are basically good,
that progress is possible and desirable in human affairs, and
that rationality, reason, and goodwill are the tools for making
progress.

3/23/2012 22

OD Values and Assumptions – Early Statements:
OD practitioners share a set of normative goals based on their
humanitarian/democratic philosophy:

1. Improvement in interpersonal competence.
2. A shift in values so that human factors and feelings come to be
considered legitimate.
3. Development of increased understanding between and within
groups in order to reduce tensions.
4. Development of more effective ―team management", that is, the
capacity for functional groups to work more competently.
5. Development of better methods of conflict resolution. Rather
than the usual bureaucratic methods which rely mainly on
suppression, compromise, and unprincipled power, and more
rational and open methods of conflict resolution are sought.
6. Development of organic rather than mechanical systems. This
is a strong reaction against the idea of organizations as
mechanisms in which managers ―work on‖, like push buttons.

3/23/2012 23

Models and theories
Kurt Lewin

Change is a three-stage process
Stage 1- Unfreezing the old behavior/ situation
Stage 2- Moving to a new level of behaviors
Stage 3- Refreezing the behavior at the new level

Edgar Schein modified this theory by specifying
psychological mechanisms involved in each stage

Later Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley
expanded this model into seven-stage model


Models and theories Contd..

Ralph Kilmann 1. The culture track

Five critical leverage 2. The management skills track
points (tracks) for
organization change 3. The team-building track

4. The strategy-structure track

5. The reward system track

Track 1 : Enhances trust, communication, information sharing
Track 2 : Provide new ways of coping with complex problems
Track 3 : Infuses new culture and updated management skills
Track 4 : Develops revised strategy plan for organization
Track 5 : Establishes performance based reward system



Porras & Robertson Model of
Organizational Change

Jerry Porras Peter Robertson

OD interventions alter features of the work setting
causing changes in individuals‘ behaviors, which in turn
lead to individual and organizational improvements.

1 Organizing arrangements
2 Social factors
Work setting factors
3 Physical setting
4 Technology


Organizing arrangements
Goals, strategies, structure,
policies, procedures

Social Factors
Culture, management style,
informal networks, individual
attributes

Physical Settings
Space configuration, physical
ambiance

Technology
Machinery, tools, IT, job
design


Systems Theory

Organizations are open systems in active
exchange with their environment

David A. Nadler
The Congruence Model


Systems Theory Contd..

Sociotechnical Systems Theory (STS)

All organizations comprised of two
interdependent systems:
1. Social system
2. Technical system
Eric Trist

To achieve high productivity and employee
satisfaction, organizations must optimize both
systems.

Changes in one system affect the other system.



The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Change

Warner Burke First order change (Transactional change)
Change
Second order change (Transformational change)
OD interventions directed towards structure,
management practices, and systems (policies &
procedures) result in first order change.
OD interventions directed towards mission and strategy,
leadership, and organization culture result in second
order change. Academy of Management &


Transformational
factors

Transactional
factors


Participation & Empowerment

Participation in OD programs is not restricted to elites or top people;
it is extended broadly throughout the organization.

Increased participation and empowerment have always been central
goals and fundamental values of OD.

Participation enhances empowerment and empowerment in turn
enhances performance.

Empowerment is the key to getting people to want to participate in
change.


Teams & Teamwork
Many tasks are so complex that they Characteristics of
cannot be performed by individuals; successful teams
people must work together to 1. clear, elevating goal

accomplish them. 2. result driven structure

Putting those empowered individuals 3. competent members

into teams creates extraordinary 4. unified commitment
effects on performance. 5. collaborative climate
Teams create synergy i.e. sum of 6. standards of
efforts of team is far greater than sum excellence

of individual efforts. 7. external support and
recognition
A number of OD interventions are
specifically designed to improve team
performance. Examples – team
building, quality circles etc.

 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing


 Parallel Learning Structures (also known as Communities of
Practice) promote innovation and change in large bureaucratic
organizations while retaining the advantages of bureaucratic
design.
 Groups representing various levels and functions work to
open new channels of communication outside of and parallel
to the normal, hierarchical structure. Parallel Learning
Structures may be a form of Knowledge Management.
 Knowledge Management involves capturing the organization's
collective expertise wherever it resides (in databases, on
paper, or in people's heads) and distributing it to the people
who need it in a timely and efficient way.


 A parallel learning structure consists of a
steering committee and a number of working
groups* that study what changes are needed,
make recommendations of improvements, and
monitor the change efforts.
 (* Idea groups, action groups, implementation
groups etc.)

 One or more top executive should be part of
steering committee

 Representatives from all parts of the organization


 To develop and implement organization-wide
innovations.
 To foster innovation and creativity within a
bureaucratic system.
 To support the exchange of knowledge and
expertise among performers.
 To capture the organization's collective
expertise


Normative-Reductive Strategy of Change

Norms form the basis for behavior, and change comes through
reeducation in which old norms are discarded and replaced by
new ones.

Changes in normative orientations involve changes in:
• Attitudes
• Values
• Skills
• Relationships

Norms can be best changed by focusing on the group, not the
individual.


Applied Behavioral Science
OD is an application of behavioral science
Pure/ Basic Science Applied Science
Generating knowledge Knowledge to Solve
practical problems
Practice Theory : Diagnosing the situation, then selecting and
implementing treatments based on diagnosis, and finally
evaluating the effects of the treatments.

Applied Science
Practice Research Practice Theory

What helps me solve this problem?

Applied Behavioral Science

Pure/ basic science
What helps me solve real problems?

Behavioral Science Research Behavioral Science Theory


Action Research
Data Collection
Feedback of data to client system members Diagnostic

Action planning based on the data Participant
Types
Taking action Empirical

Evaluating results of actions Experimental

Diagnostic Researcher enters a problem situation, diagnoses it and make
recommendations for remedial treatment (recommendations may
not be put into effect by client group)
Participant People who are to take action are involved in the entire process
from the beginning (involvement increases the likelihood of
carrying out the actions once decided upon)
Empirical Researcher keeps the systematic, extensive record of what he/
she did and what effects it had (may encounter situations too
divergent from one another, which may not permit
generalizations)
Experimental It is controlled research on the relative effectiveness of various
techniques (is difficult to do when client wants immediate
answers) Academy of Management &

Managing the OD Process
Three basic components of OD programs:

Diagnosis Continuous collection of data
about total system, its
subunits, its processes, and
its culture
Action All activities and interventions
designed to improve the
organization’s functioning
Program All activities designed to
management ensure success of the
program


 The purpose of a diagnosis is to identify
problems facing the organization and to
determine their causes so that management can
plan solutions.
 Aimed at providing rigorous analysis & data on
structure, administration, instruction,
procedures, interfaces & other essential elements
of the client system.
 Diagnosis then provides a basis for structural,
behavioral, technical interventions to improve
organizational performance.
 To make sound diagnosis it is important to have
valid information about the situation.


 Reliance on valid information about current
problems & possible opportunities of
improvement.
 Organizational Diagnosis is an effective ways
of looking at an organization to determine
gaps between current and desired
performance and how it can achieve its goals.


 One of these strategies, organizational diagnosis,
involves ―diagnosing,‖ or assessing, an organization‘s
current level of functioning in order to design
appropriate change interventions.
 The concept of diagnosis in organization
development is used in a manner similar to the
medical model.
 For example, the physician conducts tests, collects
vital information on the human system, and evaluates
this information to prescribe a course of treatment.
Likewise, the organizational diagnostician uses
specialized procedures to collect vital information
about the organization, to analyze this information,
and to design appropriate organizational
interventions


 An organizational model is a representation of an
organization that helps us to understand more clearly
and quickly what we are observing in organizations.
Burke explains the many ways in which organizational
models are useful (in Howard and Associates, 1994):
 1. Models help to enhance our understanding of
organizational behavior.
 2. Models help to categorize data about an
organization.
 3. Models help to interpret data about an
organization.
 4. Models help to provide a common, short-hand
language.


 The model provides a systematic way to
collect data on the organization and to
understand and categorize the data.


Of OD practitioners, 70% reported using a
model to assist in identifying problems.
Models may be used to analyze structure,
culture, and behavior of organization.

Ch
ap
ter
5
Sli
Academy of Management & de

 Analytical  Sociotechnical
 Emergent-group systems
behavior  Force-field analysis
 Management
practitioner


 Differentiation-integration model
 Developed by Paul Lawrence & Jay Lorsch in
1969.
 Used for interdepartmental issues by
conducting a careful diagnosis
 Examines characteristics of departments.
 Objective to help departments achieve
integration.


Helps in understanding how group operates
Used to analyze interdependence of groups.
Collects data on activities, interactions,
sentiments and norms.


Two interrelated systems in organization:
1.Social system. 2.Technical system.
The 2 systems are interrelated.
Diagnosis determines interrelationships and
type of feedback required.


Behavior balance between forces working in
opposite directions.
Restraining forces - act to keep organization
stable.
Driving forces - act to change organization.
When forces equal, organization in quasi-
stationary state of equilibrium.
Analysis determines forces to increase or
decrease.


Diagnosis – The Six-Box Model

Purposes

Marvin Weisbord
Relationships Structure

Leadership

Helpful
Rewards
Mechanisms


 Weisbord identifies six critical areas where
things must go right if organisation is to be
successful. According to him, the consultant
must attend to both formal and informal
aspects of each box.
 This model is still widely used by OD
practitioners


The six-box model is comprised of the following components
(boxes):

 Purposes: What 'businesses' are we in?
 Structure: How do we divide up the work?
 Relationships: How do we manage conflict (coordinate)
among people? With our technologies?
 Rewards: Is there an incentive for doing all that needs doing?
 Leadership: Is someone keeping the boxes in balance?
 Helpful mechanisms: Have we adequate coordinating
technologies?


 Try to maintain language of the organization
 Keep it simple
 Keep it short


 Is to obtain valid information
 Interviewer should be neutral, non-evaluative,
accepting.
 Should be able to develop a trust relationship
 Frank relation ship


 Goals are
1. To achieve increased understanding of the
issue
2. To accomplish a common diagnosis
3. To discover alternatives for resolving the
conflict
4. The focus on the common or metagoals.
- Attempt to make interventions aimed at
opening communication, leveling power &
confronting problems.


Actions
Interventions are the actions taken to produce desired
changes.
Four conditions that give rise to the need for OD interventions:
1. The organization has a problem
(corrective action – to fix it)
2. Organization sees an unrealized opportunity
(enabling action – to seize the opportunity)
3. Features of organization are out of alignment
(alignment action – to get things back ‗in sync‘)
4. Yesterday‘s vision is no longer good enough
(action for new vision – actions to build necessary
structures, processes and culture to make new vision a
reality)


 Analyzing & planning the change
 Communicating about the change
 Gaining acceptance of the required changes
in behavior
 Making the initial transition
 Consolidation & follow-up


 What are the objectives of the change ?
 What is to be accomplished
 To what extent are these goals desirable?
 What is the proposed methods?
 How is to be introduced & implemented?
 Can other method be used?


 Communication must be done before
introduction of actual change.


Parallel Learning Structures
A parallel learning structure consists of a steering committee and
a number of working groups* that study what changes are needed,
make recommendations of improvements, and monitor the change
efforts.
(* Idea groups, action groups, implementation groups etc.)

One or more top executive should be part of steering committee

Representatives from all parts of the organization


 Parallel Learning Structures (also known as
Communities of Practice) promote innovation and
change in large bureaucratic organizations while
retaining the advantages of bureaucratic design.
 Groups representing various levels and functions
work to open new channels of communication
outside of and parallel to the normal, hierarchical
structure. Parallel Learning Structures may be a
form of Knowledge Management.
 Knowledge Management involves capturing the
organization's collective expertise wherever it
resides (in databases, on paper, or in people's
heads) and distributing it to the people who need
it in a timely and efficient way.


 When to use it?
- To develop and implement organization-wide
innovations.
- To foster innovation and creativity within a
bureaucratic system.
- To support the exchange of knowledge and
expertise among performers.
- To capture the organization's collective
expertise


Organizational Development interventions are the set
of structured activities where selected organizational
units gets engaged with task or set of tasks that are
either directly or indirectly related to the development
of the organization.


O. D. INTERVENTIONS

OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected
organizational units engage in a series of tasks which will lead to
organizational improvement.
Interventions are actions taken to produce desired changes.

There are one of four reasons why there is need for OD interventions:
1. The organization has a problem- some thing is ―broken‖, and corrective actions
need to be taken i.e. it needs to be ―fixed‖.
2. The organization sees an unrealized opportunity: something it wants is beyond
its reach. Enabling actions- interventions- are developed to seize the
opportunity.
3. Features of the organization are out of alignment: parts of the organization are
working at cross-purposes. Alignment activities- interventions- are developed
to get things back in tune.
4. The vision guiding the organizational changes: yesterday‘s vision is no longer
good enough. Actions to build the necessary structures, processes, and culture
to support the new vision- interventions- are developed to make the new
vision a reality.
OD interventions are planned sets of actions to change situations


O. D. INTERVENTIONS

Generally OD interventions follow a well-planned overall OD strategy and get
revealed as events unfold and are answers to the following questions:
1. What are the change/improvement goals of the program?
2. What parts of the organization are most receptive to the OD program?
3. What are the key leverage points( individual or group) in the organization
4. What are the most pressing problems in the client organization?
5. What resources are available for the program in terms of client time and
energy and internal and external facilitators?

With the help of the above questions the OD practitioner would be able to
formulate his game plan and sequence of interventions etc.
Furthermore, OD has two goals- one educational and the other
accomplishing–a-task goal.
Normally learning takes place in one setting e.g. a classroom whereas action
takes place at the workplace.
Secondly, OD deals with real life problems and uses several learning models.


TYPES OF INTERVENTIONS

1.Discrepancy-contradiction in action or attitude
2.Theory-behavioural science used to explain behaviour etc
3.Procedure-whether the best methods are being used
4.Relationship- focuses on interpersonal relationships-negative ones
5.Experimentation-two plans tested before final implementation of one
6.Dilemma- imposed or emergent dilemma and determining choices
7.Organizational structure-evaluation of structural causes of ineffectiveness
8.Cultural-traditions ,precedents and practices-focused approach
9.Perspective-draw away from immediate actions to past and future

Blake and Mouton-Consulcube-Consultant‘s Interventions
-acceptant-gives client a sense of worth,value acceptance,support
-catalytic-helps client to generate information for clearer perception
-confrontation-clients value discrepancies, beliefs and assumptions
-prescriptions-client told what to do for solving the problem
-theories and principles-teaches behavioural science theory so that the client
can diagnose the problem on his own and solve them as well


 Interpersonal interventions
 Team
 Structural
 Comprehensive


 Laboratory training
 Career planning intervention:
- Deciding where you are now
- Deciding where you want to be
- Developing plan for where you want to be.
 Managerial grid(phase I)
 Stress management
- Stress management programme:(Biofeedback,
transcendental meditation, career counselling,
training programme in stress management,
wellness programmes, seminars in job Burnout)


 Work teams are of 2 types
Team building interventions
 Family group diagnostic meetings
 FG team building meetings
 Role negotiation technique
 Role analysis technique
 Process consultation


 Job design
 Quality of work life (QWL)
 Quality circles
 MBO & Appraisal
 Socio technical systems
 The collateral organization
 Physical setting & OD


 Third party consultation
 Organization mirror
 Inter-group team building


 T-group
- Objectives
- Methods
- Sources of change in groups
- Role of trainers
- Possible problems


 Behavioral modeling
- Current trends
- Factors influencing behavioral modeling
1. Model characteristics
2. Observer characteristics
3. Behavior/task
4. Methods of presentation of the model
5. Method analysis
6. Personal use of method


 Job search
- Packaging
- Responsiveness
 Job retention
- Performance of job duties
- Getting along with others
- Positive attitude about work
- Personal philosophy


 Career anchors
 Career stages
 Trial stages
 Establishment
 Mid career crisis sub stage
 Maintenance stage
 Late-career stage


Eight Steps to Successful Organizational Transformation

1. Establishing a sense of urgency
-Examining market and competitive realities
-Identifying and discussing crises, potential crises, or major opportunities
2. Forming a powerful guiding coalition
-Assembling a group with enough power to lead the change effort
-Encouraging the group to work together as a team
3. Creating a vision
-Creating a vision to help direct the change effort
-Developing strategies for achieving the vision
4. Communicating the vision
-Using every vehicle possible to communicate the new vision and strategies
-Teaching new behaviours by the example of the new coalition
5. Empowering others to act on the vision
-Getting rid of obstacles to change
-Changing systems or structures that seriously undermine the vision
-Encouraging risk taking and non-traditional ideas, activities, and actions


INTERVENTIONS
OD Practitioners have to consider the following in the planning and
implementation of OD:
1. Develop an overall game plan or intervention strategy
2. Structure activities to promote learning and change for better as
under:
(a) Structure to include the relevant people
(b) Structure so that it is problem-oriented or opportunity-oriented
OR oriented to the problems and opportunities generated by the
client
(c )Structure so that the goal is clear and the way to reach it is clear
(d) High probability of success
(e) Structure so that it contains both experienced-based learning
and conceptual learning
(f) Structure so that individuals are ―freed up‖ rather than anxious
and defensive
(g) Structure so that participants learn how to solve a particular
problem and how ―to learn to learn.‖


INTERVENTIONS(contd.)

(h) Structure so that individuals learn about both TASK and PROCESS
task-is what the group is working on
process-how the group is working and what else is going on ie group
processes and dynamics, styles and behaviour
(i) Structure so that individuals are engaged as whole persons not segmented
persons
3. The other set of concerns are:
(1)Maximize diagnostic data
(2)Maximize effectiveness
(3)Maximize efficiency
(4)Maximize speed
(5)Maximize relevance
(6)Minimize psychological and organizational strain


INTERVENTIONS-Blake and Mouton(contd.)

Focal Issues: power/authority,morale/cohesion, norms/standards and
goals/objectives
Target: individual, group, intergroup, organization, community, society
N. B. So Blake and Mouton have 5 kinds of interventions,4 focal issues and 5
different units of change in the form of the Consulcube to guide the
Consultant in the use of his interventions
Interventions do different things; they cause different things to happen
Results caused by interventions could be as under:
1. Feedback
2. Awareness of changing sociocultural norms or dysfunctional current norms
3. Increased interaction and communication
4. Confrontation
5. Education
6. Participation
7. Increased Accountability
8. Increased Energy and Optimism


CLASSISIFICATION OF INTERVENTIONS

1. DIAGNOSTIC Activities
2. TEAMBUILDING Activities
3. INTERGROUP Activities
4. SURVEY FEEDBACK Activities
5. EDUCATION and TRAINING Activities
6. TECHNOSTRUCTURAL or STRUCTURAL Activities
7. PROCESS CONSULTATION Activities
8. GRID ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Activities
9. THIRD-PARTY PEACEMAKING Activities
10. COACHING and COUNSELING Activities
11. LIFE and CAREER-PLANNING Activities
12. PLANNING and GOAL-SETTING Activities
13. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT Activities
14. ORGANIZATIONAL TRANSFORMATION Activities


TYPES OF INTERVENTIONS

Target Group Interventions Designed to Improve Effectiveness
Life-and career-planning activities
Coaching and counseling
T-group(sensitivity training)
Individuals/
interpersonal Education & training to increase skills,
knowledge in the areas of technical task needs,
relationship skills, process skills, decision making,
problem-solving, planning, goal-setting skills
Grid OD phase1
Work redesign
Gestalt OD
Behaviour modeling
Process consultation
Third- party peacemaking
Dyads/Triads Role negotiation technique
Gestalt OD


TYPE OF INTERVENTIONS
Teambuilding-task directed, process directed
Gestalt OD
Grid OD phase 2
Interdependency exercise
Appreciative inquiry
Responsibility charting
Teams and Groups Process consultation
Role negotiation
Role analysis technique
―Startup‖ team-building activities
Education in decision making, problem solving
planning, goal setting in group settings
Team MBO
Appreciations and concerns exercise
Search conferences
Quality of work life(QWL) programs
Quality circles
Field force analysis
Self- managed teams


OD INTERVENTIONS


Intergroup activities-Process directed
-Task directed
Organizational mirroring
Intergroup Partnering
Relations Process consultation
Third- party peacemaking at group level
Grid OD phase 3
Survey feedback


A T-group or training group (sometimes also
referred to as sensitivity-training group, human
relations training group or encounter group) is a
form of group psychotherapy where participants
themselves (typically, between eight and 15 people)
learn about themselves (and about small group
processes in general) through their interaction with
each other.
They use feedback, problem solving, and role play
to gain insights into themselves, others, and
groups.


 A T-group meeting does not have an explicit agenda,
structure, or express goal.
 Under the guidance of a facilitator, the participants are
encouraged to share emotional reactions (such as, for
example, anger, fear, warmth, or envy) that arise in
response to their fellow participants' actions and
statements.
 The emphasis is on sharing emotions, as opposed to
judgments or conclusions.
 In this way, T-group participants can learn how their
words and actions trigger emotional responses in the
people they communicate with.
 Many varieties of T-groups have existed, from the initial
T-groups that focused on small group dynamics, to those
that aim more explicitly to develop self-understanding and
interpersonal communication.
 Industry also widely used T-groups, particularly in the
1960s and 1970s, and in many ways these were
predecessors of current team building and corporate
culture initiatives.


The T-Group is intended to provide you the opportunity to:

 Increase your understanding of group development and dynamics.
 Gaining a better understanding of the underlying social processes at
work within a group (looking under the tip of the iceberg)
 Increase your skill in facilitating group effectiveness.
 Increase interpersonal skills
 Experiment with changes in your behaviour
 Increase your awareness of your own feelings in the moment; and
offer you the opportunity to accept responsibility for your feelings.
 Increase your understanding of the impact of your behaviour on
others.
 Increase your sensitivity to others' feelings.
 Increase your ability to give and receive feedback.
 Increase your ability to learn from your own and a group's
experience.
 Increase your ability to manage and utilize conflict.

One way of describing what may happen for a participant is
 Unfreezing habitual responses to situations: this is
facilitated by the participant's own desire to explore new
ways of behaving and the trainer staying non directive
silent and providing little structure or task agenda

 Self generated and chosen change by the participant:
Experiment with new behaviors

 Reinforce new behavior by positive feedback, participants
own assessment of whether what is happening is closer to
what she/he intents, supportive environment, trust
development


Sources of change in groups
 Self-observation - participants give more attention to their own
intentions, feelings, etc.
 Feedback - participants receive information on the impact they
have on others
 Insight - participants expand self-knowledge
 Self-disclosure - participants exposes more of themselves to
others
 Universality - participants experience that others share their
difficulties, concerns or hopes
 Group Cohesion - participants experience trust, acceptance &
understanding)
 Hope - participant see others learn, achieve their goals, improve,
and cope more effectively
 Vicarious Learning - participants pick up skills and attitudes
from others
 Catharsis - participants experience a sense of release or
breakthrough

Academy of Management & 10

 To help the group and individuals analyze and learn from what is
happening in the group. The trainer may draw attention to events
and behavior in the group and invite the group to look at its
experience. At times the trainer may offer tentative interpretations.
 To offer theory, a model or research that seems related to what the
group is looking at.
 To encourage the group to follow norms that tend to serve the
learning process, e.g., focusing on "here & now" rather than the
"then & there".
 To offer training and coaching in skills that tend to help the learning
process, e.g., feedback skills, EIAG, etc.
 To not offer structure or an agenda.
 To remain silent, allowing the group to experience its anxiety about
acceptance, influence, etc.
 To be willing to disclose oneself, to be open with the group. On
occasion being willing to offer feedback and challenge a participant
 To avoid becoming too directive, clinical, or personally involved.

 Social learning theory, which provides the
foundation for behaviour modeling, asserts
that most behaviours are learned by
observation and modeling.
 The poem ‗Children Learn What They Live‘ is
based on behaviour modeling in the home.


 Model characteristics
 Observer characteristics
 Behavior/task characteristics
 Method of presentation of the model


 Personal use of method
- Job search:
 Packaging
 Responsiveness
- Job retention
 Performance of job duties
 Getting along with others
 Positive, motivated attitude about the work
- Personal philosophy


 ―Career‖ means how an individual‘s work life
develops over time and how it is perceived by that
person.
 CA is designed to help people uncover their real
values & use them to make better career choices.
 It can help you think though your career options &
give you a clear understanding of your own
orientations toward work.


Schein‘s career anchors represent aspects of work
that are specially valued or needed by people for
their personal fulfillment.
1. Managerial Competence
2. Technical/Functional Competence
3. Autonomy/Independence
4. Security/Stability
5. Entrepreneurial Creativity


 Would not give up the opportunity to climb level
high
 Want to be responsible and accountable for the
total result and they identify their own work with
the success of the organization for which they work
 Ambition is to obtain generalist job
 A high managerial level in a function does not
interest them


 Would not give up the opportunity to apply his or her
skill in that area and will continue develop those skills
to an ever higher level.
 Derive their sense of identity from the exercise of their
skills
 Most happy when their work permits them to be
challenged in those areas
 May be willing to manage others in their technical or
functional area
 Not interested in management for its own sake
 Would avoid general management


 Would not give up the opportunity to define his or her
work in his or her way
 Wants to remain in jobs that allow flexibility regarding
when and how to work
 Do not stand organizational rules and restriction
 Turn down the opportunities for promotion and
advancement in order to retain autonomy
 May even seek to have business of their own in order to
achieve a sense of autonomy; however, this motive is
not the same as the entrepreneurial creativity


 Employment security/stability, the most important thing
 Main concern is to achieve a sense of having succeeded
so that they can relax
 May involve trading personal loyalty and willingness to
do whatever the employer wants for some promise of
job tenure
 Less concerned with the content of their work and ranks
they achieve in the organization, although they achieve
high levels
 Always are concerned with these issues and build their
entire self-images around the management of security
and stability


 Would not give up the opportunity to create an
organization or enterprise of their own, built on their
own ability and their willingness to take risk and
overcome obstacles
 Create an enterprise that is a result of their own efforts
 May be working for others while they are learning and
assessing future opportunities, but they will go out on
their own as soon as they can
 Want their enterprise to be financially successful in
order to prove their abilities.


 Trial stage
 Establishment
 Mid career crisis sub stage
 Maintenance stage
 Late-career stage


 A number of Interrelated issues can arise
in consultant-client relationship in O.D
activities and they need to be managed
appropriately if adverse effects are to be
avoided.
 There are certain issues of O.D in
consultant-client relationship like entry &
Contracting, Ethical Standard In O.D etc


 O.D consulting Contract can occur in various ways
through telephone call to face to face meeting. The
potential client may be present the problem and
the consultant tries to fix the problem
 The consultants and clients begin to sought out
what group should do in order to start the logical
O.D intervention.
 When both the parties agree this becomes part of
the overall psychological contract between
consultants and clients. Contracting, in both
psychological and financial sense, occurs over and
over in OD consulting.


 1st Model: The initial single manager is the client but as the
trusts and confidence develops between the key clients and
the consultant both begin to view the manager and his/er
subordinate team as the client and then mangers total
organization as the client.

 2nd Model: The top management team comprises the initial
client group.

 3rd Model: the client might be in a steering committee
comprising of representatives from different levels and
functional areas. In this case, if the CEO is not a member,
the consultant will need to be sensitive.

Client , actually is more to do with interactions,
interrelationships and Interfaces than to specific
persons or units.

 A good deal of interaction between consultant
and client is implicitly related to developing a
relationship of mutual trust
 Client‘s Trust on the consultant:
 Key clients may be Fearful that-
◦ Things will get out of hands with an outsider intervening
in the system
◦ Organization will be overwhelmed with petty complaints
◦ People will be encouraged to criticize there superiors
 Consultants trust of the client may start as
neutral
◦ Understanding clients mitive
◦ Trust and resistance problem aslo centers on good guy
bad guy syndrome
◦ Confidentiality must be maintained

It is possible and desirable for the consultants to be an expert.
Giving substantive advise will tend to neglect the OD Consultants effectiveness
hence:

 Ad OD Consultant need to resist the temptation of being a
content expert & need to clarify his/her role
 ―Purchase-of-expertise‖ or ―Doctor-Patient Role‖ – The overriding
desire to please the client may reduce her/his effectiveness
 Objective of the OD expert to help the client to develop its own
resources. The expert role creates a kind of dependency that
does not leads to the internal development
 ―Seduction into selling role‖ is dangerous because such condition
may lead the consultant to be no longer in exploring the problem
 Trust factor
 Expectation


 The consultant should practice what he/she
preaches
◦ The consultant may advocate open system but
suppresses his or her own feelings about what is
happening in the client system
◦ The consultant should give out clear messages


 The team must set an example of an effective
unit to enhance its credibility
 Practitioner should also focus on continuous
growth and process renewal
 The team should have effective interpersonal
relationship
 Team maintenance


 Intervention should be appropriate to diagnosis
 DEPTH OF INTERVENTION
In Roger Harrison‟s terms, depth of intervention can be
assessed using concepts of :
Accessibility: data is public versus hidden
Individuality: self-perception of deviation
Consultant‟s dilemma: “to lead and push, or to collaborate
and follow”
Performance units
DOI = STUDY of formal, informal systems and self


 Avoid the trap of seeping into
organizational culture
 Incomplete [mis] communication of
fears
 Comprehensive feedback then is off
limits
 Companion vs. collaborator
 Internal change agents more susceptible


 The termination of relationship is directly
proportional to the dependency relationship
between client and consultant
 The more dependent the client is on the consultant
the more difficult it is to terminate the relationship
 If the consultant is in the business of assisting
client to internalize skills and insights –then it is
making client less dependent on it and in such case
terminating the relationship is not an issue
 Thus the consultants role as a facilitator creates
less dependency and more client growth


 Consultants role as a part educator-this involves
consultants intervention on an on-going basis. It
requires open communication with client about
objective of interventions and about sequence of
planned event.
 Relationship between client and consultant depends
on:
◦ Consultant competence : the longer the consultant
are able to provide innovative and productive
intervention the more longer the relationship will be
◦ Clients resourcefulness and capabilities in OD
◦ Organizational factors like:
 Internal power struggle
 Crisis
 Top management support

 Be transparent
 Remember to align individual and organizational
goals: that client‟s goals are in complete alignment
with your goals- personal growth, career growth,
creation of personal wealth.
 Under commit- over deliver
 Say when you‟re going to do it-„THEN DO IT!‟
 Don‟t be afraid to tell the client that you have a
difference of opinion
 Offer knowledge transfer in the form of coaching and
mentoring
 Socialize

 History of Client‘s business
 In-depth knowledge of client‘s products
and services
 Client‘s critical business issues
 Strategic direction set by the client‘s senior
executives
 Consultancy‘s own products and services
aligned with needs of the client


1) A preliminary diagnosis and action
2) Data gathering from the client group
3) Data feedback to client group
4) Exploration of data by the client group
5) Action planning by the client group
6) Action taking by the client group
7) Evaluation and assessment of the results of the
actions by the client group


The key aspects of model are diagnosis, data gathering,
feedback to the client group, data discuss and work by the
client group, action planning, and action. The sequence tends
to be cynical, with the focus on new or advanced problems as
the client group learns to work more effectively together.

This process is iterative & cynical

It is a sequence of events and activities within each iteration
(data collection, feedback, and taking action based on the
data); and it is a cycle of iterations of these activities,
sometimes treating the same problem several times and then
moving to different problems.


Etc.

Joint action planning Action
Action

Feedback to key client
Action planning
or client group
Action planning

Further data gathering Discussion and work
on feedback and
Discussion and work on data emerging data
feedback and data by client group
Data gathering and
diagnosis by consultant
Feedback
Feedback to client group
Consultation with behavioral
scientist consultant
Data gathering
Data gathering
Key executive perception of Academy of Management &
problems

Action step 1
----
Objective

Fact finding Planning
Planning

Given by: Herbert A. Shepard Management &
Academy of

 Problem focus
 Action oriented
 Cyclical process
 Collaborative
 Experimental
 Learning & capability building to tackle
future problems


 Diagnostic
◦ The scientist enters in a problem situation,
diagnose it and makes recommendations
 Participant
◦ People affected take part in he entire process of
research
 Empirical
◦ The participant keeps a systemic extensive record
of what he/she did and what effects it had
 Experimental
◦ Controlled research on the relative effectiveness
of various action techniques


Lord Acton


 The intentional influence over beliefs,
emotions and behaviors of people.
◦ Potential power is the capacity to do so
◦ Kinetic power is the at of doing so
 One person exerts power over another to the
degree that he is able to exact compliance as
desired


 ―A‖ has power over ―B‖ to the extent that ―A‖
can get ―B‖ to do something that ―B‖ would
otherwise not do.
 The ability of those who possess power to
bring about the outcomes they desire.
 The capacity to effect (or affect)
organizational outcomes


 ―Pouvoir‖ from the French stands for both the
noun ―power‖ and the verb ―to be able‖


 Effectance—getting one‘s way
 Necessity of social interaction among two or
more parties
 The act or ability to influence others
 Outcomes favoring one part over the other
 Power is the ability to get one‘s way in a
social situation.


 Influence
◦ Cooperation
◦ Society
 Leadership
◦ Technological, medical, political, financial, spiritual,
organizational  standard of living
◦ Warfare, confiscation, repression misery


 Positive  Negative
◦ Leading ◦ Coercing
◦ Influencing ◦ Forcing
◦ Selling ◦ Hurting
◦ Persuading ◦ Crushing


 Negative power  Positive power
characterized by characterized by
primitive, socialized needs to
unsocialized need initiate, influence
to dominate others and lead
◦ Seeks to dominate ◦ Seeks to empower
and control others self and others


Coercive

Reward
The Bases Legitimate
of Power
Expert

Referent

 Coercive power depends on fear
 One reacts to this type of power out of fear of
the negative results that might occur if one
fails to comply
 It rests on the application (or the threat) of
physical sanctions


 is the opposite of coercive power
 People comply because doing so produces
benefits
 anyone who can distribute rewards that
others value will have power over them


 represents the power a person receives as a
result of his or her position in the formal
hierarchy of an organization
 Legitimate power is broader than the power
to coerce and reward
 it includes acceptance of a person‘s
authority by members of the organization


 is influence wielded as a result of experience,
special skill, or knowledge
 Expertise has become a strong source of
influence as the world has become more
technologically oriented
 As jobs become more specialized, we become
more dependent on ―experts‖


 is based on identification with a person who
has desirable resources or admirable
personal traits.
 It develops out of an admiration for
someone and a desire to be like that person
 If person A admires person B enough to
model behavior and attitudes after him or
her, then person B has power over person A


Importance Scarcity Number of
of the of the Viable
Resource Resource Substitutes


Locating Power in
Organizations
Departmental Individual
• Place on committees • Ability to intercede

• Number of employees • Approval for spending

• Budget allocation • Items on the agenda

• Location of offices • Access to top brass


Power Tactics
Reason Friendliness

Sanctions Coalition

Higher
Bargaining
Authority
Assertiveness


 Level of self monitoring
 Need for power
 Internal locus of control
 Investment in the organization
 Perceived alternatives
 Expectations of success


 Low trust  Role ambiguity
 Democratic decision  Self-serving senior
making managers
 High performance  Unclear evaluation
pressures systems
 Scarcity of resources  Zero-sum allocations


Types of
Organizational Politics
• Legitimate political behavior • Illegitimate political
consists of normal, every-day behavior is so extreme
politics: that it violates the rules of
• forming coalitions the game
• bypassing the chain of • Sabotage
command • whistle-blowing
• complaining to your supervisor • symbolic protests
• developing outside contacts
through professional activities

155
Development.

Power in Action
Legitimate
Political
Behavior
Illegitimate

Limited Resources
The Reality
of Politics
Ambiguous Decisions

156
Development.

 OD values consistent with positive face of
power
◦ Trust, openness, collaboration, individual dignity,
promoting individual and organizational
competence
 Emphasis on power equalization
◦ Increases power among organizational members
the whole organization has more power


1. Become a desired commodity personally and
professionally
• High interpersonal competence
• Listening, communication, problem-solving,
coaching, counseling skills; appreciating other
2. Make OD a desired commodity
• OD allows individuals and organizations to reach
their goals


3. Make OD a valued commodity for multiple
powerful people in the organization
• Creates value for OD
• Increases power base and support
• Endorsement, support and protection of OD
interventions


4. Create win-win situations
• Enhance stable, constructive social relationships
• Different way to handle conflict
5. Mind you own business (help others solve
their major problems)
• Help upon request
• Help the manager meet her/his goals


6. Mind your own business—be a process, not
content, expert
7. Mind your own business and don‘t invite
political trouble
• OD practitioner‘s role is that of facilitator,
catalyst, problem-solver, educator
• Role is not power-broker or power activist


TRENDS WITHIN OD AND THEIR IMPACT ON OD‘S
FUTURE
TRADITIONAL
•Return to original
humanistic values
•Increasing focus on process ORGANIZATIONAL
intervention DEVELOPMENT
will:
PRAGMATIC
•Emphasize values of •Have more conflict
effectiveness
in the short term
•Increasing focus on relevant
practice
•Be more integrated
ACADEMIC in the long term
•Emphasize values of
understanding, prediction,
and control
•Search for variable that
explain change and Academy of Management &
Professional Development.
16
3

Contextual trends and their effect on OD‘s
Future
ECONOMY ORGANIZATIONAL
• More concerned with cultural diversity DEVELOMENT will be:
•More concentrated wealth
•More concerned ecologically
•More embedded in the
organization‘s operations
WORKFORCE •More technologically
•Increasing diverse
•Increasingly educated
enabled
•Increasingly contingent •Shorter OD cycle times
•More interdisciplinary
•More diverse in client
TECHNOLOGY
• More E-commerce organization
• Faster organizational process •More cross –cultural
• More productivity •More concerned with
ecological sustainability
ORGANIZATIONS
• More networked
• More Knowledge, learning, and
innovation based Academy of Management & 16

Traditional
The first trend has to do with increasing calls for a
return to OD‟s traditional and others, traditionalist
argue that OD should be driven by long –established
values of human potential, equality, trust, and
collaboration. It is proposed that OD should do what is
right by assuring that organizations promote positive
social change and corporate citizenship.


Pragmatic
related to increasing demands for professionalization of the field
and an emphasis on relevance. Championed by change management
practices at large consulting firms and some OD professional
associations, pragmatists argue that OD practitioners should be
certified like most other professionals. OD should require
certification of members, create a common body of knowledge, define
minimum levels o f competencies, and institute other regulatory
infrastructure.


Scholarly
focuses on understanding, predicting an controlling
change. Unlike traditionalist and pragmatist, scholars are
concerned with creating valid knowledge, and with
generalizing conclusions about how change occurs, how it
is triggered, under what conditions it works well and so on.


Implication of OD‟s Future

OD will have more conflicts in the Short term
 Traditionalist fear that OD is becoming too corporate and
may unwittingly collude with powerful stakeholders to
promote goals inconsistent with OD‟s social responsibility
and humanistic values
 Pragmatist on the other hand worry that relying too heavily
too heavily on traditional values will reinforce OD‟s touchy
feely orientation.


OD will have more conflicts in the Short term
 The debate over values demonstrates how difficult it will be to
gain agreement about standards, competencies, enforcement
mechanisms, and oversight.


OD will become more integrated in the long term
There is a considerable common ground among the
diverse trends within the OD, and the emergence f a
more integrated view of the field seems likely in the
long term.


The Economy
Increasing concern over social and ecological consequences

Cultural diversity – Governments face the difficult choice of preserving
their culture ant the risk of being left out of the global economy.
Income distribution – globalization of the economy is closely related to
an increasing concentration of wealth in relatively few individuals,
corporation and nations.
Ecological sustainability – there are increasingly clear warnings that the
ecosystem no longer can be treated as a factor of production and that
success cannot be defined as the accumulation of wealth and material
goods at the expense of the environment.


The Workforce
The workforce is becoming more:
 Diverse – organizations, whether they operate primarily in their home
country or abroad, will need to develop policies and operating styles
that embrace the changing cultural, ethnic, gender and age diversity of
the workforce.
 Educated – the workforce is becoming more educated. A more
educated workforce demands higher wages, more involvement in
decision making and continued investment of knowledge and skills.


The workforce is becoming more:
 Contingent – the continued high rate of
downsizings, re-engineering efforts, and mergers
and acquisitions is forcing the workforce to become
more contingent and less loyal.


Technology
Internet – the backbone of global economy.
E-commerce – an economy that knows no boundaries. It
involves buying and selling products and services over the
internet.
Two types of E-commerce relevant to OD‟s Future
 Business-to-consumer – garners much attention and
awareness because it is how the public participates in E-
commerce.
 Business-to-business – more complex


Organization

 It involves increasingly networked and knowledge based
nature of organizations.
 The interventions help organizations become more
streamlined and flexible, more capable of improving
themselves continuously in response to economic and other
trends and more effective.
 Networks – are highly adaptable and can disband and reform
along different task or market lines as the circumstances
demand.


OD will be more embedded in the organization‟s
Operations
This suggest that OD practices will become more
embedded in the organization‟s normal operating routines.
OD skills, knowledge, and competencies can and should
become the daily work of managers and employees.


OD process will be more technologically
Enabled
Information technology is pervasive and will have a
significant affect on OD practice. First, it will enable OD to
be synchronous and asynchronous (anytime, anywhere) as
well as virtual and less face to face.
Second, information technology will provide much more data
about the organization to a greater number of participants in
a shorter period of time.


OD Cycle Times will be Shorter
 New information technologies will expedite certain steps in
the change process.
 In coming years, new technologies such as groupware and
video conferencing, will increasingly be used to bring more
people together faster than ever before.
 There is a real potential to reduce dramatically the time
required to perform many OD practices.


OD will be more Interdisciplinary
 OD will continue to become more interdisciplinary and rely
on different perspectives and approaches to develop and
change organizations.
 It will balance human fulfillment and economic
performance, provide a fuller recognition of the systemic
and dynamic nature of organizations and develop improved
techniques for managing large scale, and change w/n and
across natural cultures.


OD will be Applied to More Diverse
Organizations
In the future planned change will be applied to a more
diverse client base.
Types of organizations that are target of planned change
 Small entrepreneurial start-ups – important underserved
market for OD.
 Governments – increasingly applying OD interventions
such as strategic planning, employee involvement, and
performance management.


 Global Social Change Organizations – the increasing
concentration of wealth and globalization of the economy will
create a plethora of opportunities for OD to assists developing
countries, disadvantage citizens and ecology.


OD will become More Cross-Cultural
As organizations and the economy become more global, the
recent growth of OD practice in international and cross-
cultural situations will continue. The current trends of OD
clearly point to the need for OD applications that work
across cultures.


Organizational Development

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