2019 Space Tech Expo Systems thinking is a holistic approach to analysis that focuses on how a system's constituent parts interrelate over time and within the context of larger systems. The systems thinking approach contrasts with traditional analysis, which studies systems by breaking them down into their separate elements. Systems thinking facilitates collaboration among space systems customers, domain analysts, designers, and component manufacturers. Communication at multiple levels of abstractions and multiple levels of system detail can offer new insights into space system context, complexity, component interrelationships, and emergent properties. * Learn the fundamental principles and concepts behind systems thinking * Contrast systems thinking methods with more traditional engineering analyses * Review case studies of systems thinking applied to space system conceptualization, design, testing, and deployment * Understand insights by organizations that have been applying systems thinking to space systems * Identify resources to further develop systems thinking skills and capabilities within your organization

1. ©2019 Caltech
Systems Thinking:
Applications to Space Systems
Rick Hefner, Ph.D.
California Institute of Technology
Center for Technology and Management Education
RHefner@Caltech.edu
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Background
 Systems thinking is a holistic approach to analysis that focuses how a
system's constituent parts interrelate over time and within the context
of larger systems
 Systems thinking facilitates collaboration among space systems
customers, domain analysts, designers, and component manufacturers
 Communication at multiple levels of abstractions and multiple levels of
system detail can offer new insights into space system context,
complexity, component interrelationships, and emergent properties
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Objectives
 Learn the fundamental principles and concepts behind systems thinking
 Review how systems thinking contributes to space system
conceptualization, design, testing and deployment
 Identify resources to further develop systems thinking skills and
capabilities within your organization
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Fundamental Principles of Systems Thinking
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Systems Thinking
Systems thinking is
concerned with
understanding or intervening
in problem situations, based
on the principles and
concepts of the systems
paradigm
INCOSE SE Body of Knowledge –
sebokwiki.org
Systems thinking considers
the similarities between
systems from different
domains in terms of a set of
common systems concepts,
principles and patterns
INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook
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Systems Thinking Iceberg
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Principles of Systems Thinking (1 of 2)
Abstraction A focus on essential characteristics is important in problem solving because it allows problem solvers to ignore the
nonessential, thus simplifying the problem. (Sci-Tech Encyclopedia 2009; SearchCIO 2012; Pearce 2012)
Boundary A boundary or membrane separates the system from the external world. It serves to concentrate interactions inside
the system while allowing exchange with external systems. (Hoagland, Dodson, and Mauck 2001)
Change Change is necessary for growth and adaptation, and should be accepted and planned for as part of the natural order
of things rather than something to be ignored, avoided, or prohibited (Bertalanffy 1968; Hybertson 2009).
Dualism Recognize dualities and consider how they are, or can be, harmonized in the context of a larger whole (Hybertson
2009)
Encapsulation Hide internal parts and their interactions from the external environment. (Klerer 1993; IEEE 1990)
Equifinality In open systems, the same final state may be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways
(Bertalanffy 1968). This principle can be exploited, especially in systems of purposeful agents.
Holism A system should be considered as a single entity, a whole, not just as a set of parts. (Ackoff 1979; Klir 2001)
Interaction The properties, capabilities, and behavior of a system are derived from its parts, from interactions between those
parts, and from interactions with other systems. (Hitchins 2009 p. 60)
Layer
Hierarchy
The evolution of complex systems is facilitated by their hierarchical structure (including stable intermediate forms)
and the understanding of complex systems is facilitated by their hierarchical description. (Pattee 1973; Bertalanffy
1968; Simon 1996)
Leverage Achieve maximum leverage (Hybertson 2009). Because of the power versus generality tradeoff, leverage can be
achieved by a complete solution (power) for a narrow class of problems, or by a partial solution for a broad class of
problems (generality).
Modularity Unrelated parts of the system should be separated, and related parts of the system should be grouped together.
(Griswold 1995; Wikipedia 2012a)
INCOSE SE Body of Knowledge – sebokwiki.org
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Principles of Systems Thinking (2 of 2)
Network The network is a fundamental topology for systems that forms the basis of togetherness, connection, and dynamic
interaction of parts that yield the behavior of complex systems (Lawson 2010; Martin et al. 2004; Sillitto 2010)
Parsimony
One should choose the simplest explanation of a phenomenon, the one that requires the fewest assumptions
(Cybernetics 2012). This applies not only to choosing a design, but also to operations and requirements.
Regularity
Systems science should find and capture regularities in systems, because those regularities promote systems
understanding and facilitate systems practice. (Bertalanffy 1968)
Relations
A system is characterized by its relations: the interconnections between the elements. Feedback is a type of relation.
The set of relations defines the network of the system. (Odum 1994)
Separation of
Concerns
A larger problem is more effectively solved when decomposed into a set of smaller problems or concerns. (Erl 2012;
Greer 2008)
Similarity/
Difference
Both the similarities and differences in systems should be recognized and accepted for what they are. (Bertalanffy
1975 p. 75; Hybertson 2009). Avoid forcing one size fits all, and avoid treating everything as entirely unique.
Stability/
Change
Things change at different rates, and entities or concepts at the stable end of the spectrum can and should be used
to provide a guiding context for rapidly changing entities at the volatile end of the spectrum (Hybertson 2009). The
study of complex adaptive systems can give guidance to system behavior and design in changing environments
(Holland 1992).
Synthesis
Systems can be created by choosing (conceiving, designing, selecting) the right parts, bringing them together to
interact in the right way, and in orchestrating those interactions to create requisite properties of the whole, such
that it performs with optimum effectiveness in its operational environment, so solving the problem that prompted
its creation (Hitchins 2008: 120).
View
Multiple views, each based on a system aspect or concern, are essential to understand a complex system or problem
situation. One critical view is how concern relates to properties of the whole. (Edson 2008; Hybertson 2009)
INCOSE SE Body of Knowledge – sebokwiki.org
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Systems Thinking
A holistic approach to analysis that focuses on the way that a system's
constituent parts interrelate and how systems work over time and within
the context of larger systems
Key concepts:
 Hierarchy – Systems are composed of smaller subsystems
 Complexity – Creates unknown (and sometimes undesirable) emergent
behavior
 Emergent behavior – Properties of the system result from the both the
components and their interactions
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Hierarchy - System-of-Interest, System Element
System
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System
Element
System-Of-
Interest
System
Element
System
Element
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Emergent Behavior
Properties of the system result from both
the components and their interactions 12

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How Systems Thinking Applies to Systems Engineering
 Synthesis – Systems can be created by choosing (conceiving, designing,
selecting) the right parts, bringing them together to interact in the right
way, and in orchestrating those interactions to create requisite
properties of the whole
 Interfaces – Many development challenges are due to interfaces, both
internal and external to the system-of-interest
 Holism - Always consider the consequences on the wider system when
making decisions about the system elements
 View – Stakeholders judge a system by how well its outputs contribute
their own purposes; complex systems require compromises among
conflicting emergent properties
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Discussion – How Does System Thinking Apply to You?
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Systems Thinking Applied to Space Systems
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Characteristics of a Complex Space System
 Inherently uncertain and unpredictable, and we cannot fully understand
its structure or behavior
 Cannot be adequately reduced into parts, recursively designed and re-
assembled to form the whole solution
 Unintended consequences can overwhelm or negate the system’s design
 Cannot be described at a single level; multi-scale descriptions are
needed to understand complex systems
 Emergent behavior, derived from the relationships among their
elements and from multiple internal feedback loops, gives rise to
observed patterns that may not be understood or predicted
A Complexity Primer for Systems Engineers, INCOSE, unpublished draft
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The Challenge
Space system development requires…
… a large team
… developing multiple interrelated
elements
… to meet multiple stakeholder
objectives
 Disparity in skills and experience
across the team
 Complex interfaces, emergent
properties, system designed and
developed in smaller elements
 Conflicting perspectives,
objectives
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Systems Thinking Drives the Systems Engineering Process
• Understand dynamic system
behavior
• Identify feedback processes
• Find and explain patterns of
system behavior
• Identify ways in which to
influence that behavior
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Systems Models Capture/Communicate Our Understanding
Understand the problem context
Mission statement
Table of stakeholders and their needs
Context diagram
System boundary diagram
Home
Home
Owner
Obstacles
Robotic
Mower
Environment
Charging
Station
Boundary
Wire
Safeguarding
System
Traction
Path
Planning
Localization
System
Maintenance
Scheduling
System
Local
Area
Dealers
John
Deere
RegulationCompetition
Work
Force
Product System Boundary
Whole Product System Boundary
Use Context
Ensure requirements are clear,
complete, consistent
ConOps/OpsCon
(behavior diagrams)
Functional architecture
Design Structure Matrix
(functional)
Evaluate potential designs
Structural architecture
Design Structure Matrix
(structural)
Multi-Dimensional Matrix
(functional vs. structural)
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Systems Thinking Models - Context Diagram
 Identifies all elements
outside the boundaries
of the system that
influence its design and
operation
 Explicitly shows
system-level external
interfaces
 Helps clarify mission,
system boundaries,
constraints
Wikipedia
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Lessons Learned in Space Systems Development
 Team dynamics – managing a team requires a constructive tension
among members on the team and a need to foster a culture that
leverages this constructive tension
 System design / architecture – interfaces must be established such that
interactions are minimized with less chance for emergent behavior
 Modeling and simulation – used to ensure the system meets objectives
and ensures customer confidence in corrective decisions
 Socio-technical aspects – collaborations throughout the life-cycle must
also include political, economic, safety and overall system value with
broad stakeholder community
Analysis and Perspectives from the Complex Aerospace Systems Exchange (CASE) 2013
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Characteristics of NASA Senior Systems Engineers
• Listens Effectively and Translates Information
• Communicates Effectively Through Personal Interaction
• Facilitates an Environment of Open and Honest Communication
• Uses Visuals to Communicate Complex Interactions
• Communicates Through Story Telling and Analogies
• Is Comfortable with Making Decisions
Communications
• Identifies the Real Problem
• Assimilates, Analyzes, and Synthesizes Data
• Thinks Systemically
• Has the Ability to Find Connections and Patterns Across the System
• Sets Priorities
• Keeps the Focus on Mission Requirements
• Possesses Creativity and Problem Solving Abilities
• Validates Facts, Information and Assumptions
• Remains Open Minded and Objective
• Draws on Past Experiences
• Manages Risk
Problem Solving & Systems Thinking
• Possesses Technical Competence and Has Comprehensive Previous
Experience
• Learns from Successes and Failures
Technical Acumen
• Appreciates/Recognizes Others
• Builds Team Cohesion
• Understands the Human Dynamics of a Team
• Creates Vision and Direction
• Ensures System Integrity
• Possesses Influencing Skills
• Sees Situations Objectively
• Coaches and Mentors
• Delegates
• Ensures Resources are Available
Leadership
• Remains Inquisitive and Curious
• Seeks Information and Uses the Art of Questioning
• Advances Ideas
• Gains Respect Credibility, and Trust
• Possesses Self-Confidence
• Has a Comprehensive View
• Possesses a Positive Attitude and Dedication to Mission Success
• Is Aware of Personal Limitations
• Adapts to Change and Uncertainty
• Uses Intuition/ Sensing
• Is Able to Deal with Politics, Financial Issues, and Customer Needs
Attitudes & Attributes
NASA Systems Engineering Behavior Study, 2008
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Collaborative Systems Thinking
 An emergent behavior of teams resulting from the interactions of team
members and utilizing a variety of thinking styles, design processes,
tools, and communication media to consider the system, its
components, interrelationships, context and dynamics toward executing
systems design.”
Lamb, C.T. and Rhodes, D.H. “Systems thinking as an Emergent Team Property: Ongoing research into enablers
and barriers to team-level systems thinking,” IEEE International Systems Conference, New York, 2008
Related to:
 Team experience
 Team culture (e.g., consensus decision-making, open communication)
 Team structure
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A 3 Tier “Systems Thinking” Team Structure
 Systems thinkers balance the technical and social interactions of the team
• Communicate at multiple levels of abstractions and levels of system detail
• Can lead others to new insights using analogy and insightful questioning
 Functional leads that have an appreciation for systems issues act as an
interface between the functional experts and the systems leadership
• Present detailed technical information; facilitate decision making
 Functional experts bring specialized technical knowledge to the team
• Less involved in the day-to-day interactions and decision making
• Less aware of systems issues and the greater systems picture
Collaborative Systems Thinking: A response to the problems faced by Systems Engineering’s “middle tier”, B. Pfarr, C. Lamb, M. So, D. Rhodes
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Systems Thinking Resources
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https://insightmaker.com/insight/597/Habits-of-a-Systems-Thinker
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Key Steps to the Development of Systems Thinking
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Enabling Systems Thinking
To Accelerate the
Development of Senior
Systems Engineers,
Heidi L. Davidz and
Deborah J. Nightingale

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Developing a Systems Thinking Mindset Requires 4 Skills
 Exploring boundaries – understanding the inclusion, exclusion and
marginalization of stakeholders and the issues that concern them
 Appreciating multiple perspectives – how and why stakeholders frame
issues in different ways
 Understanding relationships – networks of interconnections within and
across systems
 Thinking in terms of systems themselves – organized wholes with
properties that cannot be anticipated by analyzing any one part of the
system in isolation
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Systems Thinking Resources
 What is Systems Thinking?, INCOSE SEBOK
 Basic principles of systems thinking as applied to management and
leadership, The Institute of Systemic Leadership
 What are the General Principles Applicable to Systems?, D. Hitchins
 How Systems Thinking Contributes to Systems Engineering, INCOSE UK
 Engineering Elegant Systems: Postulates, Principles, and Hypothesis of
Systems Engineering, Michael D. Watson, NASA Marshall Space Flight
Center
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