Gamification promises a new, data-driven take at a science of design: establishing what design features cause what psychological and behavioural effects. But to realise this promise, it needs theory.

1. DESPERATELY
SEEKING THEORY
Gamification, Theory, and the Promise of a
Data/AI-Driven New Science of Design
#GamifIR 2016
Sebastian Deterding
@dingstweets

2. <1>
the challenge

3. we are stuck in a groundhog day

4. “does gamification work?”

5. MU

6. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ewanrayment/1250158647

8. “does medicine work?”

9. some better questions
What active substance in what dosage affects what
condition under what circumstances? How?
Do 500 mg of orally administered acetylsalicylic acid
affect migraine in adult chronic migraine patients?
How?
Do publicly displayed achievements linked to
publicly known as hard-to-attain goals support goal-
setting in achievement-oriented individuals? How?

10. To ask such
questions, we need
theory

11. what is theory? (a quick refresh)
A theory is a set of statements
expressing a nomological network
of constructs and their relations. It
is tied to observable phenomena
through operationalisations.
Whitney, Kite & Adams, 2013; Cronbah & Meehl, 1955

12. why theory? (a quick refresh)
Whitney, Kite & Adams, 2013
• Allows to describe, explain,
predict, and control reality
• Allows to systematically organise
and extend knowledge

13. without theory, no science

14. how do cognitive
states
affect
behaviour
affectdesign
features
?

15. This is a
grandquestion inviting a new
science of design

16. the current basic mediation model
design
element 2
magic
motivation! behaviour
design
element 1
design
element 3
e.g. Hamari, Koivisto & Sarsa, 2014

17. the state of gamification theory

18. our biblical texts

19. So where is the
issue?

20. design
element 2
magic
motivation! behaviour
design
element 1
design
element 3
the issues with
design elements

21. the state of gamification theory
“… a certain Chinese encyclopaedia entitled
‘Celestial Empire of benevolent Knowledge’.
In its remote pages it is written that the
animals are divided into: (a) belonging to the
emperor, (b) embalmed, (c) tame, (d) sucking
pigs (e) sirens, (f) fabulous, (g) stray dogs, (h)
included in the present classification, (i)
frenzied, (j) innumerable, (k) drawn with a
very fine camelhair brush, (l) et cetera, (m)
having just broken the water pitcher, (n) that
from a long way off look like flies.”
issue
#1
we have chinese encyclopaedias

23. badges
points
leader
boards
levels
feedbackcleargoals
reward
progress
challenge
story/
theme

24. when is “a badge” a badge?
issue
#2

25. all exegesis, no discovery of new species
issue
#3

26. we’re stuck on low-level design features
issue
#3a
Deterding et al., 2011
where the
action is

27. we need a linné

28. an empirically grounded, well-operationalised,
well-formed taxonomy of design elements

29. this is a massive undertaking

30. design
element 2
magic
motivation! behaviour
design
element 1
design
element 3
the issues with
motivational processes

31. issue
#1
motives are multiple

32. johnmarshall reeve
»Motivation’s new paradigm is one in
which behavior is energized and directed
not by a single grand cause but, instead,
by a multitude of multilevel and coacting
influences.«
understanding motivation & emotion (2009: 45)

33. gaming motives
Competence
Autonomy
Relatedness
Meaning
Curiosity
Absorption (»flow«)
Control beliefs
Goal-setting
Recognition, belonging, power
Identity/Self
Emotions
Habituation
…

34. design
element 1
design
element 2
design
element 3
behaviour
competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...

35. Aparicio et al., 2012
Sailer et al., 2013 Zhang, 2008
Zichermann&
Cunningham,2011
none of this is empirically tested
issue
#2

36. (Another massive undertaking)

37. Elements are multi-functional
Antin & Churchill 2011
goal-settinginstruction
group identification
status
reputation
issue
#3

38. design
element 1
design
element 2
design
element 3
behaviour
competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...

39. feedback
appraised as
controlling
thwarts
autonomy
motivation
appraised as
informing
supports
competence
+
–
motivational function is an appraisal
issue
#4
Deci & Ryan 2001

40. design
element 1
design
element 2
design
element 3
behaviour
competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...
appraisal

41. motivation and appraisal are contextual
issue
#5

42. Reeve, 2006

43. license to reconfigure & leave
Deterding, 2016

44. minimised consequence
Deterding, 2016

45. situation
element 1-n
design
element 1
design
element 2
behaviour
competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...
appraisal
situation

46. different people, different motives
issue
#6

47. trait level
Croson & Gneezy, 2000

48. state level
Bowman & Tamborini, 2013

49. situation
element 1-n
design
element 1
design
element 2
behaviour
competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...
appraisal
situation
person

50. http://www.flickr.com/photos/8147452@N05/2913356030/sizes/o/
motivational function is systemic-dynamic
issue
#7

51. AestheticsMechanics Dynamics
Hunicke, LeBlanc & Zubek
mda: a formal approach to game design (2004)

52. Monopoly
aesthetic
Frustrating
end game
mechanic dynamic
Slow
poverty gap
+$ !+
-$ !-

53. Difficulty
Skill/Time
frustration
boredom
function is a dynamic person-situation relation
»flow«

54. points badges leaderboards
Tracking, Feedback Goals, surprise Competition
we focus on features …
when we should look at how features in relation
to dispositions afford motivational functions

55. Difficulty
Skill/Time
frustration
boredom
»flow«
e.g. balanced challenge
Csikszentmihalyi, 1990

56. http://www.flickr.com/photos/amrufm/2593920251/sizes/z/in/photostream/
e.g. curiosity
Silva, 2006

57. http://www.flickr.com/photos/amrufm/2593920251/sizes/z/in/photostream/
e.g. Meaningfulness
Wong, 2012

58. motivational affordance
The complex of necessary and sufficient
relations of actor dispositions and
environment features that render an
action or event functionally significant for
a specific motive
Deterding, under review

59. competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...
appraisal
p/s relation
affordance 1
p/s relation
affordance 2
p/s relation
affordance 3
behaviour

60. <2>
the opportunity

61. Kramer,Guillory&Hancock,2015

62. not that opportunity

63. jad abumrad
»Facebook has created a
laboratory of human behavior
the likes of which we’ve never
seen.«
the trust engineers (2015)

64. At any moment, software
companies are running
millions of a/B tests
to optimise user engagement,
each of which is an
experiment in waiting

65. the scale for a massive undertaking

66. design is being automated

68. But to know what to test &
how to automate, you need …
theory

69. »Online hypothesis testing can accelerate both
applied and basic Interaction Design Science by
making it fast and easy to obtain ecologically-
valid measures of the effects of designs on user
behavior. Online controlled experiments can help
build practical, generalizable, and scientifically-
validated theories of how and why designs affect
human interactions.«
derek Lomas
optimizing motivation and learning with large-
scale game design experiments (2014: 7)

70. derek Lomas
optimizing motivation and learning with large-
scale game design experiments (2014: 7)

71. Data, suggestions
Designs/tweaks
Theories,
formalisations,
indicators
Data,
indicators
researcher
designeruser
Adapted content &
interface
Experience &
behaviour data
data/ai

72. an example

73. »flow«
Difficulty
Skill/time
frustration
boredom
flow (1990)
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
basic
theory

74. Difiiculty
Skill/time
frustration
boredom
what’s the optimal curve?
Alexander, Sear & Oikonomou, 2013; Sampayo-Vargas et al., 2013; Brazil & Blau, 2014

75. crowdsourcing
design
application

76. Difficulty
Skill/time
crowdsourcing tasks are predetermined
?
?
? ?
?
?
?
?
?
?
? ?
?
?
?
?
?

77. Difficulty
Skill/time
?
?
? ?
?
?
?
?
?
?
? ?
?
?
?
?
?
Difficulty is unknown; identification
may obsolete crowdsourcing
crowdsourcing tasks are predetermined

78. Difficulty
Skill/time
?
?
? ?
?
?
?
?
?
?
? ?
?
?
?
?
?
… hence tasks are
often randomly served
crowdsourcing tasks are predetermined

79. %Playerretained
Time/levels
* idealised
tutorial
actual tasks
*
hence retention is very poor

81. Difficulty
Skill/time
How to order tasks w/o solving?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
the
question
?
?
?

82. Difficulty
Skill/time
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
… which requires skill concepts & indicators
player x
Pattern recognition: 7/10
Spatial rotation: 2/10

83. Difficulty
Skill/time
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
player x
Pattern recognition: 7/10
Spatial rotation: 2/10
… which requires difficulty concepts & indicators
task y
Pattern recognition: 7/10
Spatial rotation: 2/10

84. Performance data
Improvement suggestions
Task length design
Task descriptions
Initial balancing theories
Initial indicators of skill
Optimal difficulty curve
Indicators for skill, difficulty
researcher
designeruser
Task sequence &
task support & feedback
Engagement &
performance data
data/ai

85. <3>
summary

86. to get out of groundhog day …

87. we need to ask better questions …

88. to systematically build knowledge …

89. how do cognitive
states
affect
behaviour
affectdesign
features
?
… for a grand new science of design.

90. To ask such
questions, we need
theory

91. and we must abandon scholasticism.

92. we need better, empirical taxonomies …

93. competence
autonomy
relatedness
meaning
curiosity
...
appraisal
p/s relation
affordance 1
p/s relation
affordance 2
p/s relation
affordance 3
behaviour
… and better, empirical mechanistic models.

94. this is a massive undertaking …

95. with a matching massive opportunity.

96. we can be at the forefront of design evolution …

97. … if we loop research into the world’s largest
design lab that is running every day.
Data, suggestions
Designs/tweaks
Theories,
formalisations,
indicators
Data,
indicators
researcher
designeruser
Adapted content &
interface
Experience &
behaviour data
data/ai

98. sebastian@codingconduct.cc
@dingstweets
codingconduct.cc
Thank you.