SlideShare une entreprise Scribd logo
1  sur  86
Télécharger pour lire hors ligne
PSYCHOLOGICAL
 FOUNDATIONS
 OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
STRUCTURALISM
Held by Wilhelm Wundt and Titchener.
All    consciousness     of  facts     and
phenomena of experiences are based
upon the operation of the nervous system
particularly the brain. Then follows an
abstract analysis of the mental structures
that are operating.
FUNCTIONALISM
William James is the main
proponent.
Mental process should be
regarded    as    functions    or
operations of the organism in its
adaptation to and modification of
the environment
BEHAVIORISM
Definition: School of psychology that studies only
observable and measurable behavior.
John Watson:
  You cannot define conscious any more than you can define a soul.
  You cannot locate or measure consciousness, and therefore it cannot be
  the object of scientific study.
  Studies observable, measurable behavior and nothing more.
  Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
  Watson’s Experiment with Little Albert and the white rats (happy 11
  month old conditioned to be afraid of white rats)
  Mary Cover Jones (1924) eliminating fears through conditioning (Peter
  Experiment)
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Definition: School of Psychology that studies
how people perceive and experience objects as
whole patterns
Short lived—people didn’t really see its
potential.
Approaches structuralism from a different
angle. Example: When we see a tree, we see just
that, a tree, not a series of branches.
Founded by Max Wertheimer
PSYCHOANALYSIS
The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include the following:
Human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational
drives;
Those drives are largely unconscious;
Attempts to bring those drives into awareness meet psychological resistance in the
form of defense mechanisms;
Beside the inherited constitution of personality, one's development is determined
by events in early childhood;
Conflicts between conscious view of reality and unconscious (repressed) material
can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety,
depression etc.;
The liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved through
bringing this material into the consciousness (via e.g. skilled guidance).[1]

Conceived by Sigmund Freud
THE ECLECTIC FACTORS
 ASSOCIATED WITH THE
MENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL
    DEVELOPMENT
REFLEXES
These are inborn automatic
responses      to     simple
localized        stimulation
involving particular muscles
and parts of the body.
DRIVES, NEEDS,
         WANTS, URGES
These are inborn urges and tendencies and
wants
Creates tensions in the individual
Determines the actions and reactions of an
individual towards certain situation.
Gives rise to ambitions which motivate
individuals to exert efforts to attain their
goals.
CAPACITIES AND
    SPECIAL APTITUDES
Includes all those latent
potentialities   that   an
individual possesses which
are developed through the
process of education.
TEMPERAMENT OR EMOTION
Refers to certain emotional
predispositions    of   an
individual.
GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth – is a change in a particular phase of
the organism
Development – is series of a number of related
and continuous change in a system, extending
over a considerable time; especially enduring
and sustaining particular changes in an
organism from its origin to maturity and death.
Growth – increase in size and weight
Development – progressive changes
THEORIES OF
DEVELOPMENT
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC
  THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
All human beings pass through a series of
psychosexual stages. Each stage is dominated by the
development of sensitivity in a particular erogenous
zone of the body. Every stage assumes a particular
conflict from the individual that must be reserved
before going to the next higher stage. Individuals
who enjoy the pleasure of a given stage, might not be
willing to move on the later stage. Individuals
experience fixation at a certain period of
development.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Oral stage – birth to one year
       Infant’s gratification for mother. Eating is the
main source of satisfaction
2. Anal stage – one to three years
       Toilet training
3. Phallic stage – three to six years
       Pleasure from the sex organs
4. Latency period – six years to adolescence
       Children turn their attention to people outside
their families
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
5. Genital stage – adolescence and beyond
      masturbation of the sex organs, sex hormones
production, reactivation of the genital zones (sensual
pleasure), looking for future partner, prepares for
marriage and adult responsibility
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
          THEORY
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development as
articulated by Erik Erikson explain eight stages
through which a healthily developing human should
pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the
person confronts, and hopefully masters, new
challenges.
Each stage builds on the successful completion of
earlier stages. The challenges of stages not
successfully completed may be expected to reappear
as problems in the future.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
           THEORY
However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the
next stage. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual
advancing through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural
forces. Each stage is characterized by a psycho social crisis of
these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If
an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces
(favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she
emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue. For
example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy
vs. shame & doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she
carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.[1]
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
           THEORY
However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the
next stage. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual
advancing through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural
forces. Each stage is characterized by a psycho social crisis of
these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If
an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces
(favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she
emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue. For
example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy
vs. shame & doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she
carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.[1]
Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust
   (Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years)
Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic
needs being met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or
mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is "an essential truthfulness of others
as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness."[4] The infant
depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort.
The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the
parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child
to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the
world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure
environment and to meet the child's basic needs a sense of mistrust will
result.[5] Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration,
suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence. [4]
Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust
  (Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years)
According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in
infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially
primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers
are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an
infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If
they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant
instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable,
unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative,
having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to
gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous
situations later in life.[5]
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
     (Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years)
Existential Question: Is It OK to Be Me?
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor
abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents
still provide a strong base of security from which the child can
venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and
encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at
this age like to explore the world around them and they are
constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be
taken at this age while children may explore things that are
dangerous to their health and safety.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
     (Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years)
At this age, children develop their first interests. For
example, a child who enjoys music may like to play
with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may
be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive
parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child
a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new
challenges. As they gain increased muscular
coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable
of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to
feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use
the bathroom.
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt
(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years)
Existential Question: Is it OK for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking,
planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active
and on the move. The child is learning to master the world
around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics.
Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to
zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child
wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose.
Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over
things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt
when this initiative does not produce desired results.
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt
(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years)
The development of courage and independence are what set
preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other
age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge
of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd
(2004),[5] the child during this stage faces the complexities of
planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this
stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for
leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out
by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such
as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet;
both these examples involve self-limits.
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt
(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years)
Within instances requiring initiative, the child
may also develop negative behaviors. These
behaviors are a result of the child developing a
sense of frustration for not being able to
achieve a goal as planned and may engage in
behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and
overly assertive to parents. Aggressive
behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or
yelling, are examples of observable behaviors
during this stage. **
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt
(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years)
Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their
own, and can start new things. With this growing
independence comes many choices about activities to be
pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily
accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that
are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other
people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers
encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping
them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop
initiative- independence in planning and undertaking activities.
But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent
activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children
develop guilt about their needs and desires.[6]
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority
      (Latency, 5-12 years)
Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of
People and Things?
The aim to bring a productive situation to completion
gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play.
The fundamentals of technology are developed. To
lose the hope of such "industrious" association may
pull the child back to the more isolated, less
conscious familial rivalry of the Oedipal time.
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority
      (Latency, 5-12 years)
"Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as
individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it
right." They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and
Marotz (2003) [7] also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits
specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in
more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and
effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and
accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also
get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and
are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with
minimal assistance.[7] At this stage, children might express their
independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority
      (Latency, 5-12 years)
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the
development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school
provides many opportunities for children to achieve the
recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing
things- drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing
sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and
do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they
begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering
at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If
children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if
they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and
parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority
about their capabilities.[1]
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority
      (Latency, 5-12 years)
At this age, children start recognizing their special
talents and continue to discover interests as their
education improves. They may begin to choose to do
more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining
a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or
joining the band if they are good at music. If not
allowed to discover own talents in their own time,
they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low
self esteem, and lethargy. They may become "couch
potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop
interests.
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion
     (Adolescence, 13-19 years)
 Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?
 The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others.
 Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and
 continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and
 continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a
 career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant.
 In later stages of Adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity.
 As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents
 ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to
 experience some role confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the
 specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment with
 a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting
 for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups).
 Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity
 regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion
     (Adolescence, 13-19 years)
 Erikson is credited with coining the term "Identity Crisis."[8] Each stage that came
 before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the
 transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because
 "Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the
 need for identity in youth is not met by these."[9] This turning point in human
 development seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has come to
 be' and 'the person society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will
 be established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. In
 relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the
 crossroads:
 What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of
 earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain
 unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood.
 Youth is a time of radical change—the great body changes accompanying puberty,
 the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others,
 the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life.[8]
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion
     (Adolescence, 13-19 years)
 Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for
 themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile
 world."[10] This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for
 before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state
 of 'identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to
 "find themselves," and this state is called 'the moratorium':
 The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to
 commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right
 conditions—and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space
 and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment
 and explore—what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional
 and deep awareness of who he or she is.[10]
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion
     (Adolescence, 13-19 years)
 As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one
 has been raised, one’s personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself.
 Oftentimes, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political
 orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is
 their career choice, and oftentimes parents want to have a decisive say in
 that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external
 wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ‘foreclose’ on experimentation
 and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview
 and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self-
 definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent
 has balanced both perspectives of “What have I got?” and “What am I
 going to do with it?” he or she has established their identity:[8]
 Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain
 loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and
 confusions of value systems. (Italics in original)[10]
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion
     (Adolescence, 13-19 years)
 Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage,
 many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However,
 these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of
 identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the
 object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age." In the
 biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that
 their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively:
 Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is
 frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society,
 identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the
 skills needed for adulthood’s tasks in our technological world. So… we do
 not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen
 automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of
 thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties.[8]
Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years)
Existential Question: Can I Love?
The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At
the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end,
though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young
adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit
in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are
afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up
with us. We are familiar with pain, and to some of us, rejection is painful;
our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a
counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to
destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our
own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's
intimate relations" (1950).[11][12]
Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years)
Once people have established their identities,
they are ready to make long-term
commitments to others. They become capable
of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships
(e.g. through close friendships or marriage)
and willingly make the sacrifices and
compromises that such relationships require. If
people     cannot     form    these     intimate
relationships – perhaps because of their own
needs – a sense of isolation may result.
Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years)
Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
Generativity is the concern of guiding the next
generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are
expressions of generativity. Simply having or wanting
children does not in and of itself achieve generativity.
The adult stage of generativity has broad application
to family, relationships, work, and society.
“Generativity, then is primarily the concern in
establishing and guiding the next generation...the
concept is meant to include...productivity and
creativity”
Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years)
During middle age the primary developmental task is
one of contributing to society and helping to guide
future generations. When a person makes a
contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a
family or working toward the betterment of society, a
sense of generativity- a sense of productivity and
accomplishment- results. In contrast, a person who is
self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society
move forward develops a feeling of stagnation- a
dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
Central tasks of middle adulthood
Express love through more than sexual contacts.
Maintain healthy life patterns.
Develop a sense of unity with mate.
Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults.
Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
Accept children's mates and friends.
Create a comfortable home.
Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
Reverse roles with aging parents.
Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
Use leisure time creatively.
Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
   (Late adulthood, 65-death)
Existential Question: Is it OK to Have Been Me?
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend
to slow down our productivity and explore life as a
retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to
develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or
feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we
become dissatisfied with life and develop despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
   (Late adulthood, 65-death)
The final developmental task is retrospection: people
look back on their lives and accomplishments. They
develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they
believe that they have led a happy, productive life.
They may instead develop a sense of despair if they
look back on a life of disappointments and
unachieved goals.
This stage can occur out of the sequence when an
individual feels they are near the end of their life
(such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive
theory about the nature and development of human
intelligence first developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily
known as a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals
with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come
gradually to acquire, construct, and use it. Moreover, Piaget
claims the idea that cognitive development is at the centre of
human organism and language is contingent on cognitive
development. Below, there is first a short description of
Piaget's views about the nature of intelligence and then a
description of the stages through which it develops until
maturity.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change, and as such is
defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically,
he argued that reality involves transformations and states. Transformations refer to
all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. States refer to the
conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between
transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for
instance, liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another,
humans change in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (e.g., a series of
coins on a table might be placed close to each other or far apart) in placement or
location in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one
place at one time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, that
if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the
transformational and the static aspects of reality. He proposed that operative
intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic
or transformational aspects of reality and that figurative intelligence is responsible
for the representation of the static aspects of reality.[1]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt
or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or anticipate the transformations of
the objects or persons of interest. Figurative intelligence is the more or less static
aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation used to retain in mind
the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between
transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing,
and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning
from the operative aspects of intelligence, because states cannot exist independently
of the transformations that interconnect them. Piaget believed that the figurative or
the representational aspects of intelligence are subservient to its operative and
dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding essentially derives from the
operative aspect of intelligence.
At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it
changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget believed that this process of
understanding and change involves two basic functions: Assimilation and
accommodation.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Assimilation and accommodation
Through studying the field of education Piaget focused on
accommodation and assimilation. Assimilation, one of two
processes coined by Jean Piaget, describes how humans
perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process of
taking one’s environment and new information and fitting it
into pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when
humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and
refer to previously learned information in order to make sense
of it. Accommodation, unlike assimilation is the process of
taking one's environment and new information, and altering
one's pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new
information.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Through a series of stages, Piaget explains the ways in which
characteristics are constructed that lead to specific types of
thinking; this chart is called Cognitive Development. To Piaget,
assimilation is integrating external elements into structures of lives
or environments or those we could have through experience. It is
through      assimilation    that   accommodation       is   derived.
Accommodation is imperative because it is how people will continue
to interpret new concepts, schemas, frameworks, etc.[2] Assimilation
is different from accommodation because of how it relates to the
inner organism due to the environment. Piaget believes that the
human brain has been programmed through evolution to bring
equilibrium, and to move upwards in a process to equilibriate what
is not. The equilibrium is what Piaget believes ultimately influences
structures because of the internal and external processes through
assimilation and accommodation.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Piaget's understanding is that these two functions cannot
exist without the other. To assimilate an object into an existing
mental schema, one first needs to take into account or
accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain
extent; for instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an
apple one needs first to focus (accommodate) on the contour
of this object. To do this one needs to roughly recognize the
size of the object. Development increases the balance or
equilibration between these two functions. When in balance
with each other, assimilation and accommodation generate
mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one
function dominates over the other, they generate
representations which belong to figurative intelligence.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in
cognitive development which "extends from birth to the
acquisition of language".[3] "In this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such
as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants
gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they
perform on it. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual
action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward
the end of the stage. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage
into six sub-stages"[4]:0–2 years, Infants just have senses-
vision, hearing, and motor skills, such as grasping, sucking, and
stepping.---from Psychology Study Guide by Bernstein, Penner,
Clarke-Stewart, Roy
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
The first stage is called the Sensorimotor stage (birth to about
age 2). In this stage knowledge of the world is limited (but
developing)       because      it’s   based     on       physical
interactions/experiences. The child learns that he is separate
from his environment and that aspects of his environment
continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach
of his senses. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses
caused by sensory stimuli. In this stage according to Piaget,
the development of object permanence is one of the most
important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage.
(Object permanence is a child’s understanding that objects
continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard).
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are
both separate from the self and permanent. Object
permanence is the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen,
heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object
permanence is one of the infant's most important
accomplishments, according to Piaget.[4]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Preoperational stage
The Cognitive Development Approaches.
By observing sequences of play, Jean
Piaget was able to demonstrate that
towards the end of the second year, a
qualitatively new kind of psychological
functioning occurs.[6]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting
on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse
and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage,
the child learns to use and to represent objects by images,
words, and drawings.The child is able to form stable concepts
as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. The child
however is still not able to perform operations; tasks that the
child can do mentally rather than physically. Thinking is still
egocentric. The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of
others. Two substages can be formed from preoperative
thought.[6]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
The Symbolic Function Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 7. At 2-4 years of age, kids cannot
yet manipulate and transform information in logical ways, but they now
can think in images and symbols. The child is able to formulate designs of
objects that are not present. Other examples of mental abilities are
language and pretend play. Although there is an advance in progress, there
are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. Egocentrism occurs
when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and
that of another person's. Children tend to pick their own view of what they
see rather than the actual view shown to others. An example is an
experiment performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder. Three views of a
mountain are shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see
at the various angles; the child picks their own view compared to the actual
view of the doll. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of
actions and have lifelike qualities. An example is a child believing that the
sidewalk was mad and made them fall down.[6]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
The Intuitive Thought Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to become very curious
and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning. There is an
emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the
way they are. Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children realize they
have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they know
it.'Centration' and 'conservation' are both involved in preoperative thought.
Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to the
others. Centration is noticed in conservation; the awareness that altering a
substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage
are unaware of conservation.Example, In Piaget's most famous task, a child is
presented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The
child usually notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid.When one of
the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger
than 7 or 8 years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same
amount of liquid, and the taller container holds the larger quantity. The child simply
focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general
concept.[6]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Concrete operational stage
The concrete operational stage is the
third of four stages of cognitive
development in Piaget's theory. This
stage, which follows the preoperational
stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and
11 years[7] and is characterized by the
appropriate use of logic. Important
processes during this stage are:
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an
order according to size, shape, or any
other characteristic. For example, if given
different-shaded objects they may make a
color gradient.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Transitivity- Transitivity, which refers to
the ability to recognize relationships
among various things in a serial order. For
example, when told to put away his books
according to height, the child recognizes
that he starts with placing the tallest one
on one end of the bookshelf and the
shortest one ends up at the other end.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Classification—the ability to name and
identify sets of objects according to
appearance, size or other characteristic,
including the idea that one set of objects
can include another.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Decentering—where the child takes into
account multiple aspects of a problem to
solve it. For example, the child will no
longer perceive an exceptionally wide but
short cup to contain less than a normally
wide, taller cup.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Conservation—understanding         that
quantity, length or number of items is
unrelated to the arrangement or
appearance of the object or items.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view
things from another's perspective (even if they
think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a
comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box,
leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the
doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child
in the concrete operations stage will say that
Jane will still think it's under the box even
though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See
also False-belief task)..
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Children in this stage can,
however, only solve problems
that apply to actual (concrete)
objects or events, and not
abstract       concepts      or
hypothetical tasks.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
The third stage is known as Concrete operational stage (First grade to early adolescence): Intelligence is
demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. The
child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgements about concrete or observable
phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. Logic: Piaget determined
that children in the concrete operational stage were able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand,
children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to predict
the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility: An example of this is being able to reverse the order of
relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her
dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the
information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.[8] The abstract quality
of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal problem
solving ability.[8] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are more likely to solve
problems in a trial-and-error fashion.[8] Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans
to solve problems and systematically testing solutions.[8] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which
means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the
best path to follow in solving the problem.[8] During this stage the adolescent is able to understand such
things as love, "shades of gray", logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person begins to
entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they can be.[8] Adolescents are changing
cognitively also by the way that they think about social matters.[8] Adolescent Egocentrism governs the way
that adolescents think about social matters and is the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are
which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[8] Adolescent egocentrism can be
dissected into two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention getting behavior, and
personal fable which involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[8]
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Formal operational stage
The final stage is known as Formal operational stage (adolescence and into
adulthood): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of
symbols related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of
hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts. Logic: Piaget believed that
deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage.
This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required
in science and mathematics. Abstract thought emerges during the formal
operational stage. Children tend to think very concretely and specifically in
earlier stages. Children begin to consider possible outcomes and
consequences of actions. Problem-Solving is when children use trial-and-
error to solve problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a
logical and methodical way emerges.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
The stages and causation
Piaget sees children’s conception of causation as a march from "primitive" conceptions of
cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous, and mechanical nature. These primitive concepts
are characterized as magical, with a decidedly nonnatural or nonmechanical tone. Piaget
attributes this to his most basic assumption: that babies are phenomenists. That is, their
knowledge "consists of assimilating things to schemas" from their own action such that they
appear, from the child’s point of view, "to have qualities which in fact stem from the
organism." Consequently, these "subjective conceptions," so prevalent during Piaget’s first
stage of development, are dashed upon discovering deeper empirical truths. Piaget gives the
example of a child believing the moon and stars follow him on a night walk; upon learning
that such is the case for his friends, he must separate his self from the object, resulting in a
theory that the moon is immobile, or moves independently of other agents. The second stage,
from around three to eight years of age, is characterized by a mix of this type of magical,
animistic, or “nonnatural” conceptions of causation and mechanical or "naturalisitic"
causation. This conjunction of natural and nonnatural causal explanations supposedly stems
from experience itself, though Piaget does not make much of an attempt to describe the
nature of the differences in conception; in his interviews with children, he asked specifically
about natural phenomena: what makes clouds move? What makes the stars move? Why do
rivers flow? The nature of all the answers given, Piaget says, are such that these objects must
perform their actions to "fulfill their obligations towards men." He calls this "moral
explanation."[9]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
       DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral
development constitute an adaptation of
a    psychological   theory     originally
conceived of by the Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this
topic while a psychology postgraduate
student at the University of Chicago[1] in
1958, and expanded and developed this
theory throughout his life.
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical
behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more
adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its
predecessor.[2] Kohlberg followed the development of moral
judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget,[3] who
also claimed that logic and morality develop through
constructive stages.[2] Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg
determined that the process of moral development was
principally concerned with justice, and that it continued
throughout the individual's lifetime,[4] a notion that spawned
dialogue on the philosophical implications of such
research.[5][6]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
         DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped
into three levels of two stages each: pre-
conventional,          conventional      and      post-
conventional.[7][8][9] Following Piaget's constructivist
requirements for a stage model, as described in his
theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare
to regress in stages—to lose the use of higher stage
abilities.[14][15] Stages cannot be skipped; each
provides a new and necessary perspective, more
comprehensive         and differentiated than its
predecessors but integrated with them.[14][15]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
        DEVELOPMENT
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I
 avoid punishment?)
 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?)
 (Paying for a benefit)
Level 2 (Conventional)
 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social
 norms) (The good boy/good girl attitude)
 4. Authority and social-order maintaining
 orientation (Law and order morality)
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
         DEVELOPMENT
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
 5. Social contract orientation
 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled
 conscience)

    The understanding gained in each stage is
retained in later stages, but may be regarded by
those in later stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient
attention to detail.
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
Pre-conventional
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially
common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level
of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an
action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level
consists of the first and second stages of moral development,
and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner.
A child with preconventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences
that certain actions may bring.[7][8][9]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals
focus on the direct consequences of their actions on
themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I
did that I got spanked so I will not do it again." The worse the
punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived
to be.[16] This can give rise to an inference that even innocent
victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is
"egocentric", lacking recognition that others' points of view
are different from one's own.[17] There is "deference to
superior power or prestige".[17]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
Stage two (self-interest driven) espouses the "what's in it for
me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever is
in the individual's best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point
where it might further the individual's own interests. As a
result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
respect, but rather a "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch
yours." mentality.[2] The lack of a societal perspective in the
pre-conventional level is quite different from the social
contract (stage five), as all actions have the purpose of serving
the individual's own needs or interests. For the stage two
theorist, the world's perspective is often seen as morally
relative.
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
Conventional
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of
adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a conventional
way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to
society's views and expectations. The conventional level
consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development.
Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of
society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level
an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even
when there are no consequences for obedience or
disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or
fairness is seldom questioned.[7][8][9]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
In Stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven), the self
enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive to
approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's
accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a "good boy" or
"good girl" to live up to these expectations,[2] having learned that
there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may judge
the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of
a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like
respect, gratitude and the "golden rule". "I want to be liked and
thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like
me." Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further
support these social roles. The intentions of actors play a more
significant role in reasoning at this stage; "they mean well ...".[2]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is
important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions
because of their importance in maintaining a functioning
society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need
for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal
or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the
case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to
uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is
morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this
stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where
morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.[2]
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
           DEVELOPMENT
Post-Conventional
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked
by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society,
and that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over
society’s view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical
principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view
rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the
general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social
conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level.
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
          DEVELOPMENT
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.[7][8][9]
In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as
holding different opinions, rights and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each
person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “the
greatest good for the greatest number of people”.[8] This is
achieved through majority decision, and inevitable
compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on
stage five reasoning.
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
           DEVELOPMENT
In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based
on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as
social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not
reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an
absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.[18] This involves an
individual imagining what they would do in another’s shoes, if they
believed what that other person imagines to be true.[19] The resulting
consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but
always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not
because it is instrumental, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to
identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.[15]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jmuller.wikispaces.com
Wikipedia.org
Calderon, Jose F., Foundations of Education, Manila, Rex Book Store, Inc. 2003
DOWNLOAD LINK



http://www.slideshare.net/jaredram55
THANK YOU VERY MUCH




         Prepared by:
   JARED RAM A. JUEZAN
MAEd – Educational Management
       June 28 - 29, 2012

Contenu connexe

Tendances

Psychological foundations of Curriculum
Psychological foundations of CurriculumPsychological foundations of Curriculum
Psychological foundations of CurriculumMirasol Madrid
 
Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)
Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)
Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)Nharyza Cueva
 
The Teacher as a Person in Society
The Teacher as a Person in SocietyThe Teacher as a Person in Society
The Teacher as a Person in SocietyMaris delos Reyes
 
Deped Values Education Program
Deped Values Education ProgramDeped Values Education Program
Deped Values Education ProgramJennifer De Julio
 
Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
Curriculum Content or Subject MatterCurriculum Content or Subject Matter
Curriculum Content or Subject MatterVincent de Ocampo
 
Learner-centered principles
Learner-centered principlesLearner-centered principles
Learner-centered principlesCarlo Magno
 
Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1
Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1
Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1Zyldian Grace Silva
 
Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)Cristy Ann Subala
 
Developmental Theory
Developmental TheoryDevelopmental Theory
Developmental TheoryMG Roxas
 
Foundation of education
Foundation of educationFoundation of education
Foundation of educationcarlo mabubay
 
Philosophical perspectives in education2014
Philosophical perspectives in education2014Philosophical perspectives in education2014
Philosophical perspectives in education2014Boyet Aluan
 
foundation of Education
foundation of Educationfoundation of Education
foundation of Educationsumbul fatima
 
Reconstructionism
ReconstructionismReconstructionism
ReconstructionismCarloLatriz
 
Behaviorism as a philosophy of education
Behaviorism as a philosophy of educationBehaviorism as a philosophy of education
Behaviorism as a philosophy of educationobemrosalia
 
7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy
7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy 7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy
7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy Kevin Jay Bofetiado
 
Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education Michael John Labog
 

Tendances (20)

Psychological foundations of Curriculum
Psychological foundations of CurriculumPsychological foundations of Curriculum
Psychological foundations of Curriculum
 
Social reconstructionism ppt
Social reconstructionism pptSocial reconstructionism ppt
Social reconstructionism ppt
 
Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)
Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)
Herbert Spencer (Philosophy of Education)
 
The Teacher as a Person in Society
The Teacher as a Person in SocietyThe Teacher as a Person in Society
The Teacher as a Person in Society
 
Deped Values Education Program
Deped Values Education ProgramDeped Values Education Program
Deped Values Education Program
 
Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
Curriculum Content or Subject MatterCurriculum Content or Subject Matter
Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
 
Learner-centered principles
Learner-centered principlesLearner-centered principles
Learner-centered principles
 
Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1
Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1
Psychological foundation OF EDUCATION part 1
 
Psychological foundation of education
Psychological foundation of education Psychological foundation of education
Psychological foundation of education
 
Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
Learner - Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
 
Developmental Theory
Developmental TheoryDevelopmental Theory
Developmental Theory
 
Foundation of education
Foundation of educationFoundation of education
Foundation of education
 
Philosophical perspectives in education2014
Philosophical perspectives in education2014Philosophical perspectives in education2014
Philosophical perspectives in education2014
 
foundation of Education
foundation of Educationfoundation of Education
foundation of Education
 
Reconstructionism
ReconstructionismReconstructionism
Reconstructionism
 
Behaviorism as a philosophy of education
Behaviorism as a philosophy of educationBehaviorism as a philosophy of education
Behaviorism as a philosophy of education
 
The DECS Values Education Framework
The DECS Values Education FrameworkThe DECS Values Education Framework
The DECS Values Education Framework
 
7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy
7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy 7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy
7 Philosophies of education and Field of Philosophy
 
Foundation of Education
Foundation of EducationFoundation of Education
Foundation of Education
 
Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education
 

En vedette

Economic foundations of education
Economic foundations of educationEconomic foundations of education
Economic foundations of educationHijab Zahra
 
Role of teachers in socialization
Role of teachers in socialization Role of teachers in socialization
Role of teachers in socialization Sizzling Peridot
 
sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy
 sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy
sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophyLexter Adao
 
Introduction to sociological foundations
Introduction to sociological foundationsIntroduction to sociological foundations
Introduction to sociological foundationsAaron James Lico
 
Psychological foundations of education
Psychological foundations of education Psychological foundations of education
Psychological foundations of education Boyet Aluan
 
Global Education Presentation
Global Education Presentation Global Education Presentation
Global Education Presentation tanoyes
 
Vocational education
Vocational education Vocational education
Vocational education Anu Radha
 
Historical foundations of education
Historical foundations of education Historical foundations of education
Historical foundations of education selinynielsen
 
Sociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization Process
Sociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization ProcessSociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization Process
Sociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization ProcessRonnel Dacullo
 
Sociology of education ppt.
Sociology of education ppt.Sociology of education ppt.
Sociology of education ppt.goggigupta
 
What is education?
What is education?What is education?
What is education?Johan Koren
 
Meaning and definition of education
Meaning and definition of educationMeaning and definition of education
Meaning and definition of educationM Noman
 

En vedette (14)

Economic foundations of education
Economic foundations of educationEconomic foundations of education
Economic foundations of education
 
Role of teachers in socialization
Role of teachers in socialization Role of teachers in socialization
Role of teachers in socialization
 
sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy
 sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy
sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophy
 
Introduction to sociological foundations
Introduction to sociological foundationsIntroduction to sociological foundations
Introduction to sociological foundations
 
Sociological foundation
Sociological foundationSociological foundation
Sociological foundation
 
Psychological foundations of education
Psychological foundations of education Psychological foundations of education
Psychological foundations of education
 
Global Education Presentation
Global Education Presentation Global Education Presentation
Global Education Presentation
 
Vocational education
Vocational education Vocational education
Vocational education
 
Historical foundations of education
Historical foundations of education Historical foundations of education
Historical foundations of education
 
Sociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization Process
Sociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization ProcessSociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization Process
Sociological Foundations of Education--Sociology and the Socialization Process
 
Sociology of education ppt.
Sociology of education ppt.Sociology of education ppt.
Sociology of education ppt.
 
What is education?
What is education?What is education?
What is education?
 
Education
EducationEducation
Education
 
Meaning and definition of education
Meaning and definition of educationMeaning and definition of education
Meaning and definition of education
 

Similaire à Psychological foundations of education

Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development
Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development
Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development Sam Martin
 
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of DevelopmentErik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of DevelopmentSimrat Simrat
 
erikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptx
erikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptxerikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptx
erikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptxRobinBaghla
 
Development
DevelopmentDevelopment
Developmentlorilynw
 
Psychosocial development by sheena bernal
Psychosocial development by sheena bernalPsychosocial development by sheena bernal
Psychosocial development by sheena bernalEdi sa puso mo :">
 
Self Identity And Personality Development
Self Identity And Personality DevelopmentSelf Identity And Personality Development
Self Identity And Personality DevelopmentBrandy Grant
 
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)Maliheh Taheri
 
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)Maliheh Taheri
 
The Theory Of Human Development Theory
The Theory Of Human Development TheoryThe Theory Of Human Development Theory
The Theory Of Human Development TheoryChristina Ramirez
 
PsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docx
PsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docxPsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docx
PsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docxbfingarjcmc
 
Psychosocial Development.pptx
Psychosocial Development.pptxPsychosocial Development.pptx
Psychosocial Development.pptxsadiajabeen12
 
The Psychosocial Theory Of Human Development
The Psychosocial Theory Of Human DevelopmentThe Psychosocial Theory Of Human Development
The Psychosocial Theory Of Human DevelopmentCrystal Harris
 
Erikson 8 stages theory
Erikson 8 stages theoryErikson 8 stages theory
Erikson 8 stages theoryFahadMurad3
 
Components of Human Development
Components of Human DevelopmentComponents of Human Development
Components of Human DevelopmentMypzi
 
Do you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docx
Do you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docxDo you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docx
Do you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docxastonrenna
 
Child Development Theories.pptx
Child Development Theories.pptxChild Development Theories.pptx
Child Development Theories.pptxLarry195181
 

Similaire à Psychological foundations of education (20)

Psychosocial Theory of Development (HALF PART)
Psychosocial Theory of Development (HALF PART)Psychosocial Theory of Development (HALF PART)
Psychosocial Theory of Development (HALF PART)
 
Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development
Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development
Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development
 
Ppt my part
Ppt my partPpt my part
Ppt my part
 
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of DevelopmentErik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
 
erikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptx
erikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptxerikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptx
erikeriksons-150913054159-lva1-app6891 (1).pptx
 
Development
DevelopmentDevelopment
Development
 
Psychosocial development by sheena bernal
Psychosocial development by sheena bernalPsychosocial development by sheena bernal
Psychosocial development by sheena bernal
 
Self Identity And Personality Development
Self Identity And Personality DevelopmentSelf Identity And Personality Development
Self Identity And Personality Development
 
freud theory.pptx
freud theory.pptxfreud theory.pptx
freud theory.pptx
 
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
 
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
Cog lifespan 6 social emotional (1)
 
The Theory Of Human Development Theory
The Theory Of Human Development TheoryThe Theory Of Human Development Theory
The Theory Of Human Development Theory
 
PsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docx
PsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docxPsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docx
PsychologistsTheories Studies Research Methods H.docx
 
Psychosocial Development.pptx
Psychosocial Development.pptxPsychosocial Development.pptx
Psychosocial Development.pptx
 
The Psychosocial Theory Of Human Development
The Psychosocial Theory Of Human DevelopmentThe Psychosocial Theory Of Human Development
The Psychosocial Theory Of Human Development
 
Freud And Erikson Research Paper
Freud And Erikson Research PaperFreud And Erikson Research Paper
Freud And Erikson Research Paper
 
Erikson 8 stages theory
Erikson 8 stages theoryErikson 8 stages theory
Erikson 8 stages theory
 
Components of Human Development
Components of Human DevelopmentComponents of Human Development
Components of Human Development
 
Do you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docx
Do you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docxDo you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docx
Do you agree with each learners assessment of the theories Why or .docx
 
Child Development Theories.pptx
Child Development Theories.pptxChild Development Theories.pptx
Child Development Theories.pptx
 

Plus de Jared Ram Juezan

Mga hamong pangkapaligiran
Mga hamong pangkapaligiranMga hamong pangkapaligiran
Mga hamong pangkapaligiranJared Ram Juezan
 
Strengthening research to improve schooling outcomes
Strengthening research to improve schooling outcomesStrengthening research to improve schooling outcomes
Strengthening research to improve schooling outcomesJared Ram Juezan
 
Learner information system
Learner information systemLearner information system
Learner information systemJared Ram Juezan
 
Adoption of the basic education research agenda
Adoption of the basic education research agendaAdoption of the basic education research agenda
Adoption of the basic education research agendaJared Ram Juezan
 
10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar
10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar
10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminarJared Ram Juezan
 
Guidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnel
Guidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnelGuidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnel
Guidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnelJared Ram Juezan
 
Tips on passing the licensure
Tips on passing the licensureTips on passing the licensure
Tips on passing the licensureJared Ram Juezan
 
Yunit 3, aralin 3 pagkamulat
Yunit 3, aralin 3   pagkamulatYunit 3, aralin 3   pagkamulat
Yunit 3, aralin 3 pagkamulatJared Ram Juezan
 
Yunit 3, aralin 1 paglakas ng europe
Yunit 3, aralin 1   paglakas ng europeYunit 3, aralin 1   paglakas ng europe
Yunit 3, aralin 1 paglakas ng europeJared Ram Juezan
 
The role of social media in learning
The role of social media in learningThe role of social media in learning
The role of social media in learningJared Ram Juezan
 
Ang mga vegetation cover ng asya
Ang mga vegetation cover ng asyaAng mga vegetation cover ng asya
Ang mga vegetation cover ng asyaJared Ram Juezan
 
Mapa ng asya at rehiyon nito anyong lupa at anyong tubig
Mapa ng asya at rehiyon nito   anyong lupa at anyong tubigMapa ng asya at rehiyon nito   anyong lupa at anyong tubig
Mapa ng asya at rehiyon nito anyong lupa at anyong tubigJared Ram Juezan
 

Plus de Jared Ram Juezan (20)

Lipunan
LipunanLipunan
Lipunan
 
Kultura
KulturaKultura
Kultura
 
Mga hamong pangkapaligiran
Mga hamong pangkapaligiranMga hamong pangkapaligiran
Mga hamong pangkapaligiran
 
Mga uri ng empleyado
Mga uri ng empleyadoMga uri ng empleyado
Mga uri ng empleyado
 
9 types of students
9 types of students9 types of students
9 types of students
 
Strengthening research to improve schooling outcomes
Strengthening research to improve schooling outcomesStrengthening research to improve schooling outcomes
Strengthening research to improve schooling outcomes
 
Rank of skills
Rank of skillsRank of skills
Rank of skills
 
Learner information system
Learner information systemLearner information system
Learner information system
 
Adoption of the basic education research agenda
Adoption of the basic education research agendaAdoption of the basic education research agenda
Adoption of the basic education research agenda
 
10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar
10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar
10 klase ng titser kapag may inset o seminar
 
Guidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnel
Guidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnelGuidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnel
Guidelines on the appointment and promotion of teaching personnel
 
Tips on passing the licensure
Tips on passing the licensureTips on passing the licensure
Tips on passing the licensure
 
Yunit 3, aralin 3 pagkamulat
Yunit 3, aralin 3   pagkamulatYunit 3, aralin 3   pagkamulat
Yunit 3, aralin 3 pagkamulat
 
Yunit 3, aralin 1 paglakas ng europe
Yunit 3, aralin 1   paglakas ng europeYunit 3, aralin 1   paglakas ng europe
Yunit 3, aralin 1 paglakas ng europe
 
The role of social media in learning
The role of social media in learningThe role of social media in learning
The role of social media in learning
 
Klima ng asya
Klima ng asyaKlima ng asya
Klima ng asya
 
Ang mga vegetation cover ng asya
Ang mga vegetation cover ng asyaAng mga vegetation cover ng asya
Ang mga vegetation cover ng asya
 
Mapa ng asya at rehiyon nito anyong lupa at anyong tubig
Mapa ng asya at rehiyon nito   anyong lupa at anyong tubigMapa ng asya at rehiyon nito   anyong lupa at anyong tubig
Mapa ng asya at rehiyon nito anyong lupa at anyong tubig
 
Budget of work 3 (1)
Budget of work 3  (1)Budget of work 3  (1)
Budget of work 3 (1)
 
Budget of work 2 (1)
Budget of work 2  (1)Budget of work 2  (1)
Budget of work 2 (1)
 

Dernier

UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1DianaGray10
 
AI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just Minutes
AI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just MinutesAI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just Minutes
AI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just MinutesMd Hossain Ali
 
KubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCost
KubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCostKubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCost
KubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCostMatt Ray
 
ADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE
ADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDEADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE
ADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDELiveplex
 
Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™
Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™
Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™Adtran
 
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...Aggregage
 
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019IES VE
 
Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.
Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.
Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.YounusS2
 
20230202 - Introduction to tis-py
20230202 - Introduction to tis-py20230202 - Introduction to tis-py
20230202 - Introduction to tis-pyJamie (Taka) Wang
 
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)Commit University
 
UiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdf
UiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdfUiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdf
UiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdfDianaGray10
 
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Will Schroeder
 
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation DevelopersUiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation DevelopersUiPathCommunity
 
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?IES VE
 
Machine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdf
Machine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdfMachine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdf
Machine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdfAijun Zhang
 
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfJamie (Taka) Wang
 
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptxIntroduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptxMatsuo Lab
 
VoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBX
VoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBXVoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBX
VoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBXTarek Kalaji
 
9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team
9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team
9 Steps For Building Winning Founding TeamAdam Moalla
 

Dernier (20)

UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
UiPath Platform: The Backend Engine Powering Your Automation - Session 1
 
AI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just Minutes
AI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just MinutesAI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just Minutes
AI Fame Rush Review – Virtual Influencer Creation In Just Minutes
 
KubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCost
KubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCostKubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCost
KubeConEU24-Monitoring Kubernetes and Cloud Spend with OpenCost
 
ADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE
ADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDEADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE
ADOPTING WEB 3 FOR YOUR BUSINESS: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE
 
Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™
Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™
Meet the new FSP 3000 M-Flex800™
 
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
 
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
 
Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.
Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.
Basic Building Blocks of Internet of Things.
 
20230202 - Introduction to tis-py
20230202 - Introduction to tis-py20230202 - Introduction to tis-py
20230202 - Introduction to tis-py
 
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
Crea il tuo assistente AI con lo Stregatto (open source python framework)
 
UiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdf
UiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdfUiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdf
UiPath Solutions Management Preview - Northern CA Chapter - March 22.pdf
 
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
 
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation DevelopersUiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
 
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
 
Machine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdf
Machine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdfMachine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdf
Machine Learning Model Validation (Aijun Zhang 2024).pdf
 
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
activity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdfactivity_diagram_combine_v4_20190827.pdf
 
201610817 - edge part1
201610817 - edge part1201610817 - edge part1
201610817 - edge part1
 
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptxIntroduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
 
VoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBX
VoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBXVoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBX
VoIP Service and Marketing using Odoo and Asterisk PBX
 
9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team
9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team
9 Steps For Building Winning Founding Team
 

Psychological foundations of education

  • 3. STRUCTURALISM Held by Wilhelm Wundt and Titchener. All consciousness of facts and phenomena of experiences are based upon the operation of the nervous system particularly the brain. Then follows an abstract analysis of the mental structures that are operating.
  • 4. FUNCTIONALISM William James is the main proponent. Mental process should be regarded as functions or operations of the organism in its adaptation to and modification of the environment
  • 5. BEHAVIORISM Definition: School of psychology that studies only observable and measurable behavior. John Watson: You cannot define conscious any more than you can define a soul. You cannot locate or measure consciousness, and therefore it cannot be the object of scientific study. Studies observable, measurable behavior and nothing more. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Watson’s Experiment with Little Albert and the white rats (happy 11 month old conditioned to be afraid of white rats) Mary Cover Jones (1924) eliminating fears through conditioning (Peter Experiment)
  • 6. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Definition: School of Psychology that studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns Short lived—people didn’t really see its potential. Approaches structuralism from a different angle. Example: When we see a tree, we see just that, a tree, not a series of branches. Founded by Max Wertheimer
  • 7. PSYCHOANALYSIS The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include the following: Human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational drives; Those drives are largely unconscious; Attempts to bring those drives into awareness meet psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms; Beside the inherited constitution of personality, one's development is determined by events in early childhood; Conflicts between conscious view of reality and unconscious (repressed) material can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression etc.; The liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved through bringing this material into the consciousness (via e.g. skilled guidance).[1] Conceived by Sigmund Freud
  • 8. THE ECLECTIC FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT
  • 9. REFLEXES These are inborn automatic responses to simple localized stimulation involving particular muscles and parts of the body.
  • 10. DRIVES, NEEDS, WANTS, URGES These are inborn urges and tendencies and wants Creates tensions in the individual Determines the actions and reactions of an individual towards certain situation. Gives rise to ambitions which motivate individuals to exert efforts to attain their goals.
  • 11. CAPACITIES AND SPECIAL APTITUDES Includes all those latent potentialities that an individual possesses which are developed through the process of education.
  • 12. TEMPERAMENT OR EMOTION Refers to certain emotional predispositions of an individual.
  • 14. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Growth – is a change in a particular phase of the organism Development – is series of a number of related and continuous change in a system, extending over a considerable time; especially enduring and sustaining particular changes in an organism from its origin to maturity and death. Growth – increase in size and weight Development – progressive changes
  • 16. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT All human beings pass through a series of psychosexual stages. Each stage is dominated by the development of sensitivity in a particular erogenous zone of the body. Every stage assumes a particular conflict from the individual that must be reserved before going to the next higher stage. Individuals who enjoy the pleasure of a given stage, might not be willing to move on the later stage. Individuals experience fixation at a certain period of development.
  • 17. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Oral stage – birth to one year Infant’s gratification for mother. Eating is the main source of satisfaction 2. Anal stage – one to three years Toilet training 3. Phallic stage – three to six years Pleasure from the sex organs 4. Latency period – six years to adolescence Children turn their attention to people outside their families
  • 18. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 5. Genital stage – adolescence and beyond masturbation of the sex organs, sex hormones production, reactivation of the genital zones (sensual pleasure), looking for future partner, prepares for marriage and adult responsibility
  • 19. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY Erikson's stages of psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explain eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.
  • 20. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psycho social crisis of these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue. For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame & doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.[1]
  • 21. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psycho social crisis of these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue. For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame & doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.[1]
  • 22. Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust (Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years) Existential Question: Can I Trust the World? The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is "an essential truthfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness."[4] The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs a sense of mistrust will result.[5] Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence. [4]
  • 23. Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust (Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years) According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life.[5]
  • 24. Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years) Existential Question: Is It OK to Be Me? As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety.
  • 25. Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years) At this age, children develop their first interests. For example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.
  • 26. Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years) Existential Question: Is it OK for Me to Do, Move, and Act? Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results.
  • 27. Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years) The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2004),[5] the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits.
  • 28. Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years) Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. **
  • 29. Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years) Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things. With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative- independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires.[6]
  • 30. Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Latency, 5-12 years) Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things? The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such "industrious" association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious familial rivalry of the Oedipal time.
  • 31. Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Latency, 5-12 years) "Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right." They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) [7] also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance.[7] At this stage, children might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.
  • 32. Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Latency, 5-12 years) Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities for children to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things- drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.[1]
  • 33. Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Latency, 5-12 years) At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to discover own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self esteem, and lethargy. They may become "couch potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop interests.
  • 34. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years) Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be? The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of Adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.
  • 35. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years) Erikson is credited with coining the term "Identity Crisis."[8] Each stage that came before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because "Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these."[9] This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has come to be' and 'the person society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will be established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads: What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change—the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life.[8]
  • 36. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years) Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world."[10] This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of 'identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to "find themselves," and this state is called 'the moratorium': The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions—and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore—what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who he or she is.[10]
  • 37. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years) As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised, one’s personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Oftentimes, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and oftentimes parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ‘foreclose’ on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self- definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of “What have I got?” and “What am I going to do with it?” he or she has established their identity:[8] Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems. (Italics in original)[10]
  • 38. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years) Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age." In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively: Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood’s tasks in our technological world. So… we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties.[8]
  • 39. Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years) Existential Question: Can I Love? The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain, and to some of us, rejection is painful; our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations" (1950).[11][12]
  • 40. Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years) Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships – perhaps because of their own needs – a sense of isolation may result.
  • 41. Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years) Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count? Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. Simply having or wanting children does not in and of itself achieve generativity. The adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. “Generativity, then is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation...the concept is meant to include...productivity and creativity”
  • 42. Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years) During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity- a sense of productivity and accomplishment- results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation- a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
  • 43. Central tasks of middle adulthood Express love through more than sexual contacts. Maintain healthy life patterns. Develop a sense of unity with mate. Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults. Relinquish central role in lives of grown children. Accept children's mates and friends. Create a comfortable home. Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse. Reverse roles with aging parents. Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility. Adjust to physical changes of middle age. Use leisure time creatively.
  • 44. Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood, 65-death) Existential Question: Is it OK to Have Been Me? As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
  • 45. Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood, 65-death) The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).
  • 46. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence first developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily known as a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire, construct, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims the idea that cognitive development is at the centre of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. Below, there is first a short description of Piaget's views about the nature of intelligence and then a description of the stages through which it develops until maturity.
  • 47. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change, and as such is defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations and states. Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. States refer to the conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for instance, liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another, humans change in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (e.g., a series of coins on a table might be placed close to each other or far apart) in placement or location in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one place at one time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, that if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the transformational and the static aspects of reality. He proposed that operative intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic or transformational aspects of reality and that figurative intelligence is responsible for the representation of the static aspects of reality.[1]
  • 48. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or anticipate the transformations of the objects or persons of interest. Figurative intelligence is the more or less static aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation used to retain in mind the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing, and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning from the operative aspects of intelligence, because states cannot exist independently of the transformations that interconnect them. Piaget believed that the figurative or the representational aspects of intelligence are subservient to its operative and dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding essentially derives from the operative aspect of intelligence. At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget believed that this process of understanding and change involves two basic functions: Assimilation and accommodation.
  • 49. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Assimilation and accommodation Through studying the field of education Piaget focused on accommodation and assimilation. Assimilation, one of two processes coined by Jean Piaget, describes how humans perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process of taking one’s environment and new information and fitting it into pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in order to make sense of it. Accommodation, unlike assimilation is the process of taking one's environment and new information, and altering one's pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information.
  • 50. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Through a series of stages, Piaget explains the ways in which characteristics are constructed that lead to specific types of thinking; this chart is called Cognitive Development. To Piaget, assimilation is integrating external elements into structures of lives or environments or those we could have through experience. It is through assimilation that accommodation is derived. Accommodation is imperative because it is how people will continue to interpret new concepts, schemas, frameworks, etc.[2] Assimilation is different from accommodation because of how it relates to the inner organism due to the environment. Piaget believes that the human brain has been programmed through evolution to bring equilibrium, and to move upwards in a process to equilibriate what is not. The equilibrium is what Piaget believes ultimately influences structures because of the internal and external processes through assimilation and accommodation.
  • 51. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Piaget's understanding is that these two functions cannot exist without the other. To assimilate an object into an existing mental schema, one first needs to take into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain extent; for instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple one needs first to focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this one needs to roughly recognize the size of the object. Development increases the balance or equilibration between these two functions. When in balance with each other, assimilation and accommodation generate mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one function dominates over the other, they generate representations which belong to figurative intelligence.
  • 52. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in cognitive development which "extends from birth to the acquisition of language".[3] "In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages"[4]:0–2 years, Infants just have senses- vision, hearing, and motor skills, such as grasping, sucking, and stepping.---from Psychology Study Guide by Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, Roy
  • 53. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY The first stage is called the Sensorimotor stage (birth to about age 2). In this stage knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it’s based on physical interactions/experiences. The child learns that he is separate from his environment and that aspects of his environment continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach of his senses. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. In this stage according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage. (Object permanence is a child’s understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard).
  • 54. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most important accomplishments, according to Piaget.[4]
  • 55. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Preoperational stage The Cognitive Development Approaches. By observing sequences of play, Jean Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs.[6]
  • 56. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY (Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage, the child learns to use and to represent objects by images, words, and drawings.The child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. The child however is still not able to perform operations; tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically. Thinking is still egocentric. The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Two substages can be formed from preoperative thought.[6]
  • 57. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY The Symbolic Function Substage Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 7. At 2-4 years of age, kids cannot yet manipulate and transform information in logical ways, but they now can think in images and symbols. The child is able to formulate designs of objects that are not present. Other examples of mental abilities are language and pretend play. Although there is an advance in progress, there are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person's. Children tend to pick their own view of what they see rather than the actual view shown to others. An example is an experiment performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder. Three views of a mountain are shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various angles; the child picks their own view compared to the actual view of the doll. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities. An example is a child believing that the sidewalk was mad and made them fall down.[6]
  • 58. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY The Intuitive Thought Substage Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they know it.'Centration' and 'conservation' are both involved in preoperative thought. Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to the others. Centration is noticed in conservation; the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation.Example, In Piaget's most famous task, a child is presented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid.When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger than 7 or 8 years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same amount of liquid, and the taller container holds the larger quantity. The child simply focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general concept.[6]
  • 59. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Concrete operational stage The concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years[7] and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage are:
  • 60. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.
  • 61. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Transitivity- Transitivity, which refers to the ability to recognize relationships among various things in a serial order. For example, when told to put away his books according to height, the child recognizes that he starts with placing the tallest one on one end of the bookshelf and the shortest one ends up at the other end.
  • 62. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Classification—the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.
  • 63. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Decentering—where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally wide, taller cup.
  • 64. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Conservation—understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
  • 65. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also False-belief task)..
  • 66. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.
  • 67. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY The third stage is known as Concrete operational stage (First grade to early adolescence): Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. The child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgements about concrete or observable phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. Logic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to predict the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility: An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.[8] The abstract quality of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal problem solving ability.[8] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion.[8] Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions.[8] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.[8] During this stage the adolescent is able to understand such things as love, "shades of gray", logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they can be.[8] Adolescents are changing cognitively also by the way that they think about social matters.[8] Adolescent Egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social matters and is the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[8] Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention getting behavior, and personal fable which involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[8]
  • 68. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Formal operational stage The final stage is known as Formal operational stage (adolescence and into adulthood): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Logic: Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics. Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages. Children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. Problem-Solving is when children use trial-and- error to solve problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.
  • 69. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY The stages and causation Piaget sees children’s conception of causation as a march from "primitive" conceptions of cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous, and mechanical nature. These primitive concepts are characterized as magical, with a decidedly nonnatural or nonmechanical tone. Piaget attributes this to his most basic assumption: that babies are phenomenists. That is, their knowledge "consists of assimilating things to schemas" from their own action such that they appear, from the child’s point of view, "to have qualities which in fact stem from the organism." Consequently, these "subjective conceptions," so prevalent during Piaget’s first stage of development, are dashed upon discovering deeper empirical truths. Piaget gives the example of a child believing the moon and stars follow him on a night walk; upon learning that such is the case for his friends, he must separate his self from the object, resulting in a theory that the moon is immobile, or moves independently of other agents. The second stage, from around three to eight years of age, is characterized by a mix of this type of magical, animistic, or “nonnatural” conceptions of causation and mechanical or "naturalisitic" causation. This conjunction of natural and nonnatural causal explanations supposedly stems from experience itself, though Piaget does not make much of an attempt to describe the nature of the differences in conception; in his interviews with children, he asked specifically about natural phenomena: what makes clouds move? What makes the stars move? Why do rivers flow? The nature of all the answers given, Piaget says, are such that these objects must perform their actions to "fulfill their obligations towards men." He calls this "moral explanation."[9]
  • 70. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived of by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology postgraduate student at the University of Chicago[1] in 1958, and expanded and developed this theory throughout his life.
  • 71. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor.[2] Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget,[3] who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.[2] Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime,[4] a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research.[5][6]
  • 72. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre- conventional, conventional and post- conventional.[7][8][9] Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a stage model, as described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress in stages—to lose the use of higher stage abilities.[14][15] Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.[14][15]
  • 73. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) (Paying for a benefit) Level 2 (Conventional) 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) (The good boy/good girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)
  • 74. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Level 3 (Post-Conventional) 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience) The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages, but may be regarded by those in later stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient attention to detail.
  • 75. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Pre-conventional The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with preconventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.[7][8][9]
  • 76. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I did that I got spanked so I will not do it again." The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.[16] This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is "egocentric", lacking recognition that others' points of view are different from one's own.[17] There is "deference to superior power or prestige".[17]
  • 77. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Stage two (self-interest driven) espouses the "what's in it for me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever is in the individual's best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours." mentality.[2] The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is quite different from the social contract (stage five), as all actions have the purpose of serving the individual's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist, the world's perspective is often seen as morally relative.
  • 78. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Conventional The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.[7][8][9]
  • 79. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT In Stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven), the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations,[2] having learned that there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude and the "golden rule". "I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me." Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further support these social roles. The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; "they mean well ...".[2]
  • 80. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.[2]
  • 81. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Post-Conventional The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.
  • 82. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.[7][8][9] In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “the greatest good for the greatest number of people”.[8] This is achieved through majority decision, and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
  • 83. KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.[18] This involves an individual imagining what they would do in another’s shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines to be true.[19] The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not because it is instrumental, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.[15]
  • 84. BIBLIOGRAPHY Jmuller.wikispaces.com Wikipedia.org Calderon, Jose F., Foundations of Education, Manila, Rex Book Store, Inc. 2003
  • 86. THANK YOU VERY MUCH Prepared by: JARED RAM A. JUEZAN MAEd – Educational Management June 28 - 29, 2012