French Revolution; session viii- Directoire

Directoire
French Revolution
session viii
The Directory

Saturday, September 18, 2010

Directoire
French Revolution
session viii
The Directory

Exit libertè a la Francois!—or—Buonaparte closing the farce of Egalitè, at St. Cloud near Paris Novr. 10th. 1799 / Js. Gillray

Major topics for this session

• The Directory at Work

• Napoleon’s First Italian Campaign

• America’s Quasi-war with France

• The Tiger and the Shark

• 18 Brumaire, l’an viii


The Directory at Work


The stereotypes of corruption and cynicism were greatly exaggerated. It
has been concluded by one scholar that, of all the men in the higher
positions under the Directory, that is, the thirteen who served as
Directors and the others who acted as ministers, only three are known to
have been ﬁnancially corrupt: Barras, Talleyrand, and Fouché; and it is
added (as if in defense of the French bourgeoisie) that the two former
were ex-nobles by origin, and Fouché an ex-priest. A number of
contractors and generals, including Bonaparte, made fortunes in the
occupied countries….the British were doing the same by by not wholly
dissimilar methods in their conquests...without incurring the shocked
indignation of Europeans.

Palmer, Democratic Revolution, vol. ii, p. 212


Fructidor and Floréal
These poetic words refer to two unseemly maneuvers, by which the
Directory struck out in turn against the Right and the Left. By the coup
d’état of Fructidor of the Year V (September 1797) it put down the royalists.
By the coup d’état of Floréal of the Year VI (May 1798) it did the same to
the democrats….
It will be recalled that by the two-thirds rule of 1795 two-thirds of the
legislative chambers...were until the election of March 1797 former
members of the Convention….The election of 1797 proved to be a
humiliating defeat for the Directory. The newly elected third of the Elders
and Five Hundred...gave a majority of royalists of various kinds, or at least
of persons not well aﬀected to the Republic….At least two generals in the
army, Pichegru and Moreau, were carrying on secret discussions looking to
a royalist restoration.
Palmer, pp. 255-256


The coup of 18 Fructidor l’an V
• 4 September 1797-Barras, Reubell, and la Révellière staged a coup, supported
by the military, against the moderates and royalists in the Councils

• Hoche, then in command of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse, visited Paris and
sent troops, while Bonaparte sent General Augereau

• the two conservative directors, Carnot and Barthélemy were ousted.
Barthélemy was deported to Cayenne, while Carnot escaped

• the elections of 49 departments were annulled and many of the deputies
charged with royalist conspiracy were also exiled to Cayenne

• the two vacant places in the Directory were ﬁlled by Merlin de Douai and
François de Neufchâteau.

• the government frankly returned to Jacobin methods. The law against the
relatives of émigrés was reenacted, and military tribunals were established to
condemn émigrés who should return to France.


The coup of 22 Floréal l’an VI
• spring,1798- not only a new third of the legislature had to be chosen, but the places of the
members expelled by the revolution of Fructidor had to be ﬁlled

• the constitutional party (moderate monarchists on the Right) had been rendered helpless, and
the mass of the electors were indiﬀerent. However, among the Jacobins themselves, there had
arisen an extreme party hostile to the directors

• with the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it bade fair to
gain a majority

• before the new deputies could take their seats, the directors forced through the councils the
law of 22 Floréal, annulling or perverting the elections in thirty departments and excluding
forty-eight deputies by name

• even this coup d'état did not secure harmony between the executive and the legislature. In the
councils, the directors were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment

• while France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly bound to husband the national
strength and practice moderation towards other states. Since December 1797, a congress had
been sitting at Rastatt to regulate the future of Germany. That it should be brought to a
successful conclusion was of the utmost importance for France


Instead, foreign adventurism


Chasseur, 1er Légion des Francs, 1797
Preparing for the expedition to Ireland in 1796,
General Hoche formed the Prémier Légion des
Francs by taking selected men from existing units.
Described as “true devils incarnate” the légionaires
were dressed in captured British coats which had
been recut like light infantry uniforms and dyed
dark brown (hence the name ‘the Black Legion’)…
Caught in a storm, the expedition never landed,
but still lost some 500 dead from drowning.


BRITISH REPUBLICAN SYMPATHY

Charles James Fox

“Pitt
the
Younger”

Richard Sheridan


Pitt Pitt’s cabinet

Fox

other British “Jacobins”


Chasseur, 2e Légion des Francs; Wales,
1797
22 February 1797 a French force landed on the
Welsh coast...to divert attention from the
planned expedition to Ireland. They intended to
march on Liverpool, raise an insurrection, plunder
public stores and mansions as they went.
Commanded by the Irish-American Col. Tate
(who couldn’t speak French) the expedition was
ill-fated from the start and surrendered to the
militia after two days, causing little damage.

The 1,200 troops were ex-soldiers condemned to
prisons and galleys: ‘The men ought to be young,
robust and daring, with minds open to the lure of
booty….They should know how to carry terror
and death into the midst of their enemies….’


The Spithead and Nore mutinies were two major
mutinies by sailors of the Royal Navy in [April]1797. There
was also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other
locations in the same year. They were not violent
insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes,
demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were
potentially dangerous for Britain, because at the time the
country was at war with the Revolutionary government of
France. There were also concerns among some members of
the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the
trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.
Wikipedia


Tell him we intend to be
Masters. I’ll read him
a lecture

Admiral Lord Howe
coming to negotiate
“hat in hand” The Spithead and Nore mutinies were two major
mutinies by sailors of the Royal Navy in [April]1797. There
was also discontent and minor incidents on ships in other
locations in the same year. They were not violent
insurrections, being more in the nature of strikes,
demanding better pay and conditions. The mutinies were
potentially dangerous for Britain, because at the time the
country was at war with the Revolutionary government of
France. There were also concerns among some members of
the British ruling class that the mutinies might be the
trigger to a wider uprising similar to the French Revolution.
Wikipedia

Aye, Aye, We’re at the bottom of it

Fox


Arthur
O’Connor
Erskine
dan
Duke of
Norfolk
Sheridan
Fox


The United Irishmen of 1798

• symbol of the United Irishmen (founded 1791)




• winter 1796-97-Gillray’s caricature of Hoche’s failed invasion





• 21 June 1798-Cruikshank’s “Defense of the Rebels at Vinegar Hill”






• Wolfe Tone (19 November 1798), charismatic leader and martyr






• Wolfe Tone (19 November 1798), charismatic leader and martyr ….THINKER AND DOER, DREAMER
OF THE IMMORTAL DREAM AND
DOER OF THE IMMORTAL DEED, WE
• his grave with Pearce (1879-1916) tribute OWE MORE THAN WE CAN EVER
REPAY HIM….TO HIS TEACHING WE
OWE IT THAT THERE IS SUCH A
THING AS IRISH NATIONALISM AND
TO THE MEMORY OF THE DEED HE
NERVED HIS GENERATION TO DO,
TO THE MEMORY OF ’98, WE OWE IT
THAT THERE IS ANY MANHOOD
LEFT IN IRELAND.”







• his grave with Pearce (1879-1916) tribute

• half-hanging of a rebel







• his grave with Pearce (1879-1916) tribute

• half-hanging of a rebel

• guerilla warfare continues till 1804


Further Foreign Adventurism

• However, the directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad. Bonaparte
was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were anxious to keep him as far as
possible from Paris

• they, therefore, sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic of its best
army and most renowned captain

• coveting the treasures of Bern, the Directors sent Brune to invade Switzerland and
remodel its constitution

• they sent Berthier to invade the Papal States and erect the Roman Republic. They also
occupied and virtually annexed Piedmont. In all these countries, they organized such an
eﬀective pillage that the French became universally hated

• as the armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded conquest
and rapine, the ﬁrst permanent law of conscription was passed in the summer of 1798. The
attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments

• the priests were held responsible and some eight thousand were condemned to deportation en
masse, although the much greater part escaped by the goodwill of the people. Few soldiers were
obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak as it was tyrannical


However, the reaction [of 22 Floreal (1798)] did not go very far, because
the notables [the haut bourgeois, upper middle-class] were divided. They
were divided by...the aggressive anticlericalism which brought most of
the Directorials close to the sans-culottes….the notables considered that
the common people had to have a religion and that the clergy was
indispensable to social order; they also believed that the civil war would
never really be brought to an end until peace had been made with the
clergy. The Directory, on the other hand, especially after 18 Fructidor,
pursued a policy of hostility….

Lefebvre, pp. 404-405


Civil Religion, Again

Some Directorials, moreover, like the “tyrant Robespierre,” considered
that the Republic could not live without a metaphysical doctrine, and
would have liked to set up a civil religion in competition with
Christianity. Such were La Revellière and his friend Leclerc. In January,
1797, [they] inaugurated Theophilanthropy, a moralizing, idealistic deism
which brought together, in the churches of Paris, a fair number of
Republicans of all shades of opinion...it never reached the common
people. Freemasonry, whose philosophical principles were very similar,
was likewise unable to do so….

Lefebvre, pp. 404-405


Dim Prospects

It seems likely that the chances for a moderate and constitutional
settlement in France, in the years after 1795, were virtually nil. For one
thing, the war was still going on….Even with governments well
established, the needs and atmosphere of war are unfavorable to
constitutional experimentation and personal and political liberties. The
Revolution--or rather the last years of the Old Regime of which the
Revolution itself was merely the outcome--had left the country too
divided, with too many memories, hopes and fears, hates and
attachments, disillusionments and expectations, for men to accept each
other with mutual trust or political tolerance.

Palmer, Democratic Revolution, vol. ii p. 260


Napoleon’s First Italian Campaign


Bonaparte at the Bridge
of Arcole, by Baron
Antoine-Jean Gros, (ca.
1801), Louvre, Paris


Soldiers! You are naked, i%-fed; the government owes you much, it can give you
nothing. Your patience, the courage you exhibit in the midst of these rocks, are
admirable, but they bring you no glory; no luster is reﬂected on you. I wi% lead you
into the most fertile plains of the world. Rich provinces, great cities wi% be in your
power; there you wi% ﬁnd honor, fame and riches. Soldiers of Italy, sha% courage or
constancy fail you?

Napoleon, 27 March 1796


BATAVIAN
REPUBLIC

NICE

SAVOY
FR


Always begin
with the
KEY
1st-the date/dates
10 0 10 20 30
2nd-the scale


Bonaparte’s ﬁrst oﬀensive

The French army was strung out along the Riviera for 50 miles, holding the coastal
highway and the Ligurian spur of the Apennines. From the summits could be seen
Bonaparte’s promised land--the historical amphitheater of the Lombard Plain,
bounded on three sides by mountains. The Kingdom of Piedmont and the hereditary
Austrian possession of Milan occupied the western half of this region, with their
combined armies facing the French along the northern slope of the Ligurian hills.

Montross, War through the Ages, p. 462


TO TURIN
(capital of
Piedmont)

DEGO
MONTENOTTE

MONDOVI
CEVA

CARCARE

the ﬁrst action occurs as Laharpe’s
division (7,500) attacks a much smaller
Austrian force in Montenotte and
drives it out, inﬂicting losses of 2,500

the San Giacomo road was actually
a 15 mi mule trail, alternately mud &
sharp rocks over a half-mile-high pass

5 0 5
Note change of scale

Undoubtedly, Bonaparte, lacking previous ser vice as an infantr y
commander, had failed to appreciate the difficulties of such a night march.
It was a fault that would affect many of his future operations. On the other
hand, in this the first of his campaigns, he displayed some of the attributes
that were to make him a great captain: the ability to assess rapidly and
clearly the advantages and hazards inherent in an existing situation,
directness of purpose, vigorous execution, and simplicity and flexibility of
planning.

Esposito & Elting, A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars, commentary on MAP 4


The Austrians sent to relieve
On 13 April, Bonaparte was certain Dego fall back in confusion
that he had wedged his army between
Colli & Beaulieu. His problem now
was to drive his wedge deeper and to
separate them completely before they
could react eﬀectively.

Massena
captures
Augereau
Dego and
skirmishes
takes 4,000
westward to
Austrian and
ke e p C o l l i
DEGO Sardinian
occupied
prisoners
CEVA

5 0 5 10


After extensive reconnaissance on 16 April,
deciding that Beaulieu now would be
definitely out of action long enough to
permit the destruction of Colli’s army,
Bonaparte began swiftly shifting his strength
westward.

Colli took up the new
position as shown.
He r e h e h o p e d to
hold out until
Beaulieu recovered.

The fact remained that Vukassovich had
stalled the French oﬀensive throughout
15-16 April; but Beaulieu was not the man
to take advantage of this opportunity

T

Much of 22 April had to be spent cuﬃng the
French army--reveling in the fat, unforaged
country around it--back into its ranks; local
procurement of supplies had to be organized.

K i n g Vi c t o r A m a d e u s o f S a r d i n i a ,
considering his situation hopeless, told
Colli to ask for an armistice.

On 26 April he accepted Bonaparte’s terms


"Soldiers, You have descended like a torrent from the summit of the Apennines,
you have overthrown, scattered everything that opposed your progress. . . . . .
your fellow-citizens will point to you and say: "He was of the Army of Italy !"

- Bonaparte, 1796


The Battle of Lodi
Louis-François, Baron Lejeune, c. 1804
Musée National des Châteaux de Versailles


The French artillery suddenly doubled its rate of fire. Out of the smoke,
straight across the bridge, roared Dallemagne’s column (3,000). With men
dropping at each stride, it got to the center of the bridge (some 200 yards
long) before Austrian infantry fire smashed its head into a tangle of dead
and wounded. Somehow untouched, red-bearded Major Dupas,
commanding the leading battalion, shouted his men on. The column
staggered, but Berthier seized a flag and went forward. Massena, Lannes,
Dallemagne--a crowd of officers and men mixed together--followed. Some
carabiniers, dropping from the bridge onto a sand bank in the river, gave
the rush fire support….
Later, Bonaparte would say that it was Lodi that made him certain he could
be a man of high destiny.

Esposito & Elting, commentary on maps 10 & 11


Reproduction of a painting by Felicien de Myrbach-Rheinfeld
Caption: Where after seizing the bridge over the Adda, the French defeated the Austrians and proceeded to
occupy Milan.
Source: Life of Napoleon Bonaparte by William M. Sloane. New York: Century, vol. 1 (1906)


...a few days after the Battle of Lodi [10 May 1796] he conﬁded to
Marmont, "They [the Directory] have seen nothing yet....In our days no
one has conceived anything great; it is for me to set the example."

Napoleon, age 26


“Every soldier carries a marshal’s baton in his knapsack”-- Napoleon

• one of the maxims of the Revolution was: les
carrières s'ouvrent au talent (careers are open to
talent)

• nowhere did this seem to be so true as in the
military

• 1793-in the chaos and crisis atmosphere which
produced the Terror, promotions were sudden
and depended on only two things: political
reliability & ability

• although the oﬃcer class in the Ancien Regime
had been predominently noble, now it was
almost entirely non-aristocratic

• Napoleon’s oﬃcers make a study in social André Masséna
mobility l'Enfant chéri de la Victoire
1758-1817


born in Nice, son of a shop b o r n i n Ve r s a i l l e s , s o n o f
keeper, orphaned at 13, became military engineer, entered the
cabin boy for 4 years. 1775-89 army at 17, went to Nor th
private, then warrant officer in America with Rochambeau,
the Royal Italian Regt. Brief returning as a colonel. During
stint as a smuggler in Fr West the Rev, Chief of Staff of the
Indies. 1791 enlisted as a private, Versailles Natl Guard, 1792,
by 1792 made colonel served with Dumouriez
Andre Massena Alexandre Berthier
1753-1815

born in Saarlouis, son of a born in Guyenne, son of an
master barrel cooper & Seven innkeeper, joined the cavalry at
Years War veteran, Co%ege des 20, 1792 made officer, brought
Augustins, then notar y and Na p o l e o n’s c a n n o n o n 1 3
overseer of mines & forges. 1787 Vendémiare. Began the Italian
enlisted in a hussar regiment. campaign as an aide-de-camp,
Oct, 1792, commissioned, later commander of cavalry

Joachim Murat
Michel Ney 1767-1815
1769-1815

son of a Parisian fruit seller,
born in Lyons, son of an silk
e n l i s t e d a t 1 7, n o t e d
m a n u f a c t u r e r, j o i n e d t h e
swordsman & duelist. Killed
national guard cavalry at 22,
an officer in a duel, fled
1793, at the siege of Toulon made
France. Served in the Russian,
chef de batai%on. There he took
Prussian & Neapolitan armies.
G e n e r a l O ’ Ha r a p r i s o n e r.
Back to France after the
Severely wounded in the Italian
Revolution. Fought in the
Campaign, 1796
Vendée

Pierre Augereau Louis Gabriel Suchet
1757-1816 1770-1826


!


The campaign [against Beaulieu] ended when Bonaparte again entered
Milan, to be hailed as a liberator by crowds which had not yet fully
experienced French looting and indiscipline. The city had been taken just
after Lodi, and now the victor laid siege to the citadel to capture the heavy
artillery needed for the investment of Mantua. Thus in each operation he
made “war nourish war,” while never neglecting to send the impoverished
Directory his regular oﬀerings of jewels and Italian art treasures to be
turned into cash.

Montross, p. 466


PESCHIERA

The Quadrilateral
LEGNAGO


If more was expected of the French soldier and officer than their
counterparts in other armies, so also were the rewards greater. Already the
army of Italy had won booty such as had been gained by no European
conqueror in generations. Personal violence to noncombatants was rare
[this would not hold true in Spain, where both sides committed atrocities,
jbp], but all ranks thieved like gypsies, with Bonaparte and the Directory
setting the example…. Milan, Turin, Pavia and Bologna were stripped of
gold, jewels and objects of art in addition to the usual requisitions of
provisions. Even the pope, on making his peace, had to deliver 12,500,000
francs, 500 ancient manuscripts and 100 precious statues, paintings and
vases.

Montross, p. 467


La batai%e de Castiglione (1-5 August 1796)
by Victor Adam
Musée national du Château de Versai%es,1836
here Bonaparte defeats Austria’s second general,
Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser

Austria 61,100
France 41,500
Austria sends her third
army with a new
general


With the defeat of the French armies DAVIDOVICH
(off map to the north)
The Third Attempt
in Germany, a new major Austrian (18,400)

oﬀensive in Italy was certain. Not
NOVEMBER 1796
having the strength for a major
offensive of his own, Bonaparte
would have to take full advantage of
the terrain and try to wage a war of
limited defensive-offensive
operations.

Alvintzy had been given command of
the Austrian forces in Italy. The
quality of the troops was very mixed.
Most of Davidovich’s were probably
veterans from Germany; part of
Alvintzy’s were unwilling Poles and
poorly trained conscripts and part
exceptionally good Hungarian and
The Quadrilateral Croat regiments

5 0 5 10


Davidovich, with superior numbers, pushes
Vaubois south of Trent (3-4 November)
then, threatening to outﬂank them, sends
them in disarray even farther south (6-7
November) Bonaparte brings Massena (his
mountain-warfare expert) to advise. From
the 2nd to the 6th the French had lost
5,000 men and their morale was beginning
to falter. Fortunately for Bonaparte,
Davidovich did not advance aggressively to
exploit his initial successes.

Bonapar te, confident in the
quality of his troops, decides to
strike Alvintzy’s advance guards.
He is unpleasantly surprised at the
good quality of the unseasoned
heterogeneous Au s t r i a n s .
Alvintzy--whose skill, flexibility
and moral courage were limited--
had lumbered as far as Vicenza and
showed little inclination to push
beyond.

Situation 9 November & Movements
Since 2 November 1796


At about 1400 the Austrian artillery--well
posted and well-handled--shot Augereau back
out of Caldiero.

A great general must say several
times a day to himself, ‘What should
I do if the enemy appeared at my
&ont, on my right, or on my le' Greatly outnumbered, the French were
ﬂank?’ If he finds it difficult to gradually forced back. In the evening
answer such questions, he is not in a Bonaparte broke contact and withdrew into
good position, or a% is not as it Verona.
should be, and he must alter it. Two thousand French had been lost, and the
survivors were badly discouraged by this new
reverse--suﬀered by Bonaparte himself.

He who wishes to make quite sure of everything in war, and never
ventures, wi% always be at a disadvantage. Boldness is the acme of wisdom.


Bonaparte had completed his plans by the morning of 13 November. He had decided to make
a main crossing at Ronco. There, the approaches of a former French pontoon bridge were
still intact, and another bridge over the Adige could be constructed readily. Also, by keeping
west of the Alpone, he would be in closer contact with Verona and better able to keep
between Alvintzy and Davidovich. According to Bonaparte’s latest information, there were
no large Austrian units around Arcola...

Marsh

Alpo
Marsh

n
e Ri
ver
Adige Ri
ver

Swamp

BATTLE OF ARCOLA
Situation at Dark, 15 Nov 1796

untering only a few18, 2010
Saturday, September


Marsh

Alpo
Marsh

n
e Ri
ver
Adige Ri
ver

Swamp

RONCO
BATTLE OF ARCOLA

Saturday, September


Augereau’s column, encountering only a few
scattered shots, had almost reached the Arcola
bridge when it was suddenly taken in flank and
pinned down by the musketry and cannon fire of
Brigido’s troops from the other bank--at less
than 100-yard range. Augereau, flag in hand, led
his men in a rush, but could not get them within Marsh

Alpo
Marsh
200 yards of the bridge.

n
e Ri
ver
Adige Ri ARCOLA
ver

Swamp

RONCO
BATTLE OF ARCOLA

Saturday, September



Alpo
Marsh

n
e Ri
ver
Bonaparte himself then took charge. Guieu (3,000) was ordered to cross by A
dige Riv ARCOLA
boat below, near Albaredo, and outﬂank Arcola. As this would take time, er
Bonaparte seized the ﬂag, harangued the troops, and led them on a new charge.
They got almost to the bridge, then were broken up by two Austrian guns,
which swept the crossing. Lannes was badly wounded covering Bonaparte with
his body. The column was thrown back in considerable disorder, and
Bonaparte’s horse pitched him into the marsh. Swamp

RONCO
BATTLE OF ARCOLA

Saturday, September



Alpo
Marsh

n
e Ri
ver
Bonaparte himself then took charge. Guieu (3,000) was ordered to cross by A
dige Riv ARCOLA
boat below, near Albaredo, and outflank Arcola. As this would take time, er
Bonaparte seized the flag, harangued the troops, and led them on a new charge.
They got almost to the bridge, then were broken up by two Austrian guns,
which swept the crossing. Lannes was badly wounded covering Bonaparte with
his body. The column was thrown back in considerable disorder, and
Bonaparte’s horse pitched him into the marsh. Swamp

RONCO
BATTLE OF ARCOLA The Austrians counterattacked furiously, almost capturing Bonaparte,
but a staff officer rallied a party of grenadiers and broke the charge.
Augereau’s division then fell back on Ronco.
Saturday, September

fanciful depictions


• Bonaparte had already detected a slowness in
Alvintzy; it had not escaped his keen battle-
wise eye that the Austrian forces were full of
raw recruits

• in the early hours Alvintzy put Provera and
Mitrowsky forward, but Massena and
Augereau pushed them both back

• Alvintzy was discouraged and sent his supply
trains back toward Montebello

• Bonaparte now felt the battle was ripe.
Engineers worked all night building a bridge
across the Alpone, just above its mouth

• a detachment crossed the Adige against little
opposition--by boat at Albaredo to cover this
bridge construction and Augereau’s crossing
the next morning
3 2 1 0 5


• the plan was for ﬁrst Massena, then
Augereau, to recross the Adige at Ronco
early on the 17th

• Massena would then threaten Arcola from
the west and block Provera at Porcile,
while Augereau would cross the new
bridge and attack from the south

• Massena lured Mitrowsky into an ambush
capturing 3,000

• Augereau was initially blocked, but It w a s n o w n i g h t . B o t h
Napoleon sent 25 guides with 4 armies, utterly worn out, slept
trumpeters as a ruse. It worked on their arms. French losses
for the past three days, 4,600;
Au s t r i a n l os s e s e x ce e d e d
6,000
• the Legnano detachment was the ﬁnal
blow


Bonaparte must have thought of Arcola
when he wrote: “The fate of a battle is a
question of a single moment, a single
thought;...the decisive moment arrives,
the moral spark is kindled and the
smallest reserve force settles the matter.”

And again: “There is a moment in
engagements where the least maneuver
is decisive and gives the victory; it is the
one drop of water which makes the
vessel run over.”

Bonaparte overcame Alvintzy and
Davidovich through determination,
superior energy, impetuosity, tenacity,
and the ability to analyze situations and
calculate the chances under the most
diﬃcult conditions.

In t h e wo r d s o f G e n e r a l Pa t to n :
The Austrian commander and his
“Weapons change, but man changes not
men, exhausted, discouraged and
at all. To win battles, you do not beat
harassed, had been psychologically
weapons--you beat the soul of the
vulnerable to the “one drop of
enemy man.”
water”--that tiny, but noisy and
energetic, detachment of Guides
and trumpeters that had set oﬀ a
chain reaction of fear and despair
among the Austrians.


In his report to the Directoire from Milan on December 7, 1796, General Henri Jacques
Guillaume Clarke, then chief of the Topographical Bureau in the Ministry of War, wrote of
Napoleon Bonaparte: 'The General-In-Chief has rendered the most important
services….The fate of Italy has several times depended on his learned combinations. There is
nobody here who does not look upon him as a man of genius, and he is eﬀectively that. He is
feared, loved, and respected in Italy….A healthy judgment, enlightened ideas, put him
abreast of distinguishing the true from the false….His manner of execution is learned and
well calculated. Bonaparte can bear himself with success in more than one career. His
superior talents and his knowledge give him the means….Do not think, Citizen Directors,
that I am speaking of him from enthusiasm. It is with calm that I write, and no interest
guides me except that of making you know the truth. Bonaparte will be put by posterity in
the rank of the greatest men.'

Jeremy Green, “General Napoleon Bonaparte’s Italian Campaign” in Military History, (Apr, 1997)


Rivoli; 14-15 January 1797
Now, at last, the issue was to be staked on a single decisive battle.
The clash promised to be a ﬁnal test of the tactical merits of concentric
columns as opposed to French grand tactics. The very terrain of Rivoli--a
lakeside plateau approached by good roads from three directions--made it
inevitable that the Austrians would rely on their favorite converging attack.
Quite as inevitably, Bonaparte planned to make use of his interior lines in
the hope of bringing up a local superiority of numbers at each threatened
point.
At Rivoli, however, Bonaparte’s greater skill was balanced by an enemy
numerical advantage of more than two to one at the beginning of the battle.

Montross, p. 473


Napoleon at the Battle of Rivoli
Felix Philipoteaux, 1845
Palace of Versailles, Ga%erie des Batai%es


It now became clear to Bonaparte that Alvintzy’s
was the main attack force. Orders were promptly
issued for a maximum concentration against him.
Victor would move up to Villafranca; Rey to
Castelnuovo; Murat would use the gunboat ﬂotilla
to ferry troops at Salo to Torri, then march to join
Joubert. Massena would leave minimum garrisons
in the Verona area and march for Rivoli. Augereau

r
ive
would defend the Adige from Verona south.

eR
Bonaparte himself arrived at Rivoli at 0200 on the

ig
14th. When his concentration was complete, he

Ad
would have approximately 23,000 men and some
30 to 40 guns to engage Alvintzy.

For the ﬁfth time in nine months, the Austrian
state, displaying amazing vitality, rebuilt its army
in Italy. Reinforcement poured in--new levies of
SALO conscripts, the Vienna garrison, and volunteers.
TORRI
National spirit was high. The new army numbered
RIVOLI
46,200 infantry and 2,800 cavalry. But it had two
weaknesses. Its quality was uneven. Worse,
Alvintzy was left in command. It probably was not
appreciated in Vienna that it was Alvintzy, more
than his army, who had lost Arcola.

VILLAFRANCA

ALVINTZYʼS SECOND ADVANCE
Situation 11 January 1797


Alvintzy originally advanced in ﬁve columns: 5
This advance had been designed to bring major weight on Joubert, then at La Corona.

1

2 3 4
Liptay

1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0 1


LA CORONA

1

2 3 4
Liptay

1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0 1


Joubert, afraid of being enveloped, fell back to the town of Rivoli during the night of
13-14 January.

1

2 3 4
Liptay

1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0 1


Joubert, afraid of being enveloped, fell back to the town of Rivoli during the night of
13-14 January.

1

2 3 4
Liptay

RIVOLI

1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0 1



That same night, the Austrian columns moved to the positions indicated by the open red symbols
1
Napoleon, arriving at Rivoli at 0200 14 Jan
surveyed the situation. By now he had great
situational awareness. The night was clear, the
Austrian campﬁres lit up the mountains. He
2 3 4
ordered Joubert to seize the key feature, the
Trombalora Heights. Liptay

TROMBALORA
HEIGHTS

RIVOLI

1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0 1



That same night, the Austrian columns moved to the positions indicated by the open red symbols
1

2 3 4
Liptay

TROMBALORA
HEIGHTS

RIVOLI

1 3/4 1/2 1/4 0 1


panorama of Rivoli

West (W)

The views were taken from Monte Ceredello, roughly in the centre
of the French positions. The compass directions given for each
photograph are only approximate.


panorama of Rivoli
View along the Trombalora
Heights, the main French
defensive position.

West (W)

The views were taken from Monte Ceredello, roughly in the centre
of the French positions. The compass directions given for each
photograph are only approximate.


panorama of Rivoli

Looking towards Caprino.

WNW


panorama of Rivoli

View towards southern end
of Monte Baldo.

NW


panorama of Rivoli

The area where the 14th
Line infantr y regiment
must have placed its guns.

NNW


panorama of Rivoli

Looking towards La Corona

N


panorama of Rivoli
The ridge along which
Joubert's troops retreated,
and where they fought for
most of the battle.

NNE


panorama of Rivoli

Looking directly towards
San Marco. The higher
peaks are on the far side of
the River Adige.

E


panorama of Rivoli

The ridge continues

ESE


panorama of Rivoli

The terrain between Monte
Ceredello and the route
down into the Adige valley.

SE


Between 0600 and 0700 Liptay attacked
vigorously, slightly overlapping the French left LA CORONA

ﬂank. Immediately, the 85th and 29th Demi-
brigades, on Joubert’s left, broke and started a
stampede.

Liptay

RIVOLI


LA CORONA

Fortunatel y, the 14th Demi-brigade, at
Joubert’s center, steadied by Berthier, drew
back its left ﬂank and held ﬁrm.

Liptay

RIVOLI


LA CORONA

Now (at 1000) Massena’s two leading demi-
brigades came panting up through Rivoli, and Liptay
were quickly put in with the bayonet to clear
Trombalora Heights. This they did with
dispatch….Most of Joubert’s retreating left
wing apparently rallied to join them.

RIVOLI


LA CORONA

Liptay

Meanwhile Joubert
had trouble on his
right

RIVOLI
In this crisis, with the French
rear seriousl y threatened,
someone (apparently Berthier
again) hastily massed 15 guns
to smash the head of
Quasdanovich’s column.
Amid this growing jumble of ﬂeeing troops and of artillery
still trying to go forward, some ammunition wagons
suddenly exploded. The retreat became a headlong ﬂight.


The Battle of Rivoli
Baron Louis Albert Bacler d'Albe.


Vue de Bassin de Rivoli entre les monts Corona et Pipolo. 25 Nivose An V
detail from a watercolor done by combat painter Giuseppi Pietro Bagetti
99.5cm x 59cm


closeup of Bagetti’s watercolor


Some 28,000 men had advanced with Alvintzy
from Austria as the new year began; on the 16th, a
bare 7,000 streamed frantically back towards the
Brenner pass. Of the remainder, 13,000 were
prisoners in French hands; the others were
stragglers, deserters or dead.

BATTLE OF RIVOLI
Operations afternoon of 14 January 1797
and Pursuit after the Battle, 15 January


ALVINTZY’S SECOND ADVANCE
Situation Morning of 16 January

Würmser’s fate in Mantua was now
sealed. He still held out, but it was
obvious that he could hardly do so
much longer. It would be spring
before Austria could assemble and
dispatch another army of relief;
hunger and disease, Würmsers'
immediate foes, would triumph
before then.

On 2 February, in desperate straits,
he finally surrendered to Serurier.

During late January, February and
e a r l y Ma r c h , t h e p r o m i s e d
reinforcements began to reach
Bonaparte, giving him a field army
of at least 40,000. He was now
ready to seize the strategic
offensive.

ALVINTZY’S SECOND ADVANCE
Situation Morning of 16 January

Bonaparte had won Rivoli at a moment when the Directory, shaking under
new defeats along the Rhine and growing political opposition at home, had
been willing to make peace on bargain terms. Now, its members saw
unlimited prospects of further conquests and loot, and all thoughts of
peace were discarded. The main French effort would be shifted from the
Rhine to northern Italy; Bonaparte would be reinforced and given a free
hand for an advance on Vienna; Moreau would advance into southern
Germany to clear the Tyrol and cover Bonaparte’s left flank.
Believing that a decisive victory over Bonaparte would completely capsize
the reeling French war effort, the Austrians decided to stand on the
defensive in Germany and concentrate an army of 90,000 in northern Italy.
The Archduke Charles, conqueror of Jourdan and Moreau, was placed in
command.

Esposito & Elting, commentary on MAP 30


When Charles reached Italy in February, he found
some 44,000 regulars and militia on hand--mostly
survivors of recent defeats, too disorganized and
demoralized for another oﬀensive. As the promised
GRAZ
reinforcements slowly trickled in, the Archduke, forced
on the defensive, disposed his troops as shown by the
open dashed symbols to cover the routes leading to the
heart of Austria.

ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS,
1796-97
CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE
ARCHDUKE CHARLES
Situation 11 March 1797, and
Operations 11-25 March


When Charles reached Italy in February, he found
some 44,000 regulars and militia on hand--mostly
survivors of recent defeats, too disorganized and
demoralized for another offensive. As the promised
GRAZ
reinforcements slowly trickled in, the Archduke, forced
on the defensive, disposed his troops as shown by the
open dashed symbols to cover the routes leading to the
heart of Austria.

TARVISO

Of the 50,000 reinforcements promised by the
Directory, 23,000, mostly seasoned troops, had arrived
by early March. A series of skirmishes soon gave ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS,
Bonaparte a clear picture of the Austrian positions and 1796-97
their low state of morale. He decided to attack at once
CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE
with the troops on hand. On 11 March he moved ARCHDUKE CHARLES
forward in an effort to cut the Austrians off from the Situation 11 March 1797, and
Operations 11-25 March
Tarviso Pass.

Though the forces confronting Bonaparte
were weak, there were stil l 80,000
Austrians along the Rhine. If the French
there remained motionless, the Austrians
could easily shift troops from the Rhine,
overwhelm Joubert, and drive down the
Adige to cut the Army of Italy from its
roots.
To gain time Bonaparte requested an
armistice.

Massena, the wily mountain
f i g h t e r, l e d t h e Fre n c h
advance, utilizing his superior
numbers to maneuver and
batter the Archduke back
through Neumarkt (1 Apr) to
Leoben (7 Apr)

roots.
armistice.

News that Bonaparte might
bring France peace having
a ro u s e d p o t e n t p o p u l a r
f e e l i n g i n h i s f a v o r, t h e
Directory reluctantly gave
him full powers to treat. Massena, the wily mountain
f i g h t e r, l e d t h e Fre n c h
advance, utilizing his superior
numbers to maneuver and
batter the Archduke back
through Neumarkt (1 Apr) to
Leoben (7 Apr)

roots.
armistice.

Johann Peter Beaulieu de
Jozsef Alvinczi von Borberek
Marconnay
1735-1810
1725-1819

Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser Archduke Charles von Habsburg
1724-1797 1771-1847


Address to the Troops on the Conclusion of the First Italian Campaign,
March, 1797

"Soldiers: The campaign just ended has given you imperishable renown. You have been victorious in
fourteen pitched battles and seventy actions. You have taken more than a hundred thousand prisoners,
five hundred field-pieces, two thousand heavy guns, and four pontoon trains. You have maintained the
army during the whole campaign. In addition to this, you have sent six mi%ions of do%ars to the public
treasury, and have enriched the National Museum with three hundred masterpieces of the arts of
ancient and modern Italy, which it has required thirty centuries to produce. You have conquered the
finest countries in Europe. The French flag waves for the first time upon the Adriatic opposite to
Macedon, the native country of Alexander [the Great]. Sti% higher destinies await you. I know that you
wi% not prove unworthy of them. Of a% the foes that conspired to stifle the Republic in its birth, The
Austrian Emperor alone remains before you. To obtain peace we must seek it in the heart of his
hereditary State. You wi% there find a brave people, whose religion and customs you wi% respect, and
whose prosperity you wi% hold sacred. Remember that it is liberty you carry to the brave Hungarian
nation."


• 17 October 1797-the Treaty of Campo Formio
cemented Bonaparte’s Italian triumph

• Nice and Savoy are ceded by Sardinia-Piedmont

• the rest of the Riviera and the Republic of Genoa
become the Ligurian Republic

• the Cisalpine Republic contains Lombardy
(formerly Austrian), the western territory of the
Venetian Republic and several smaller states

• both republics are French satellites

• the former Republic of Venice, including Istria and
Dalmatia, becomes an Austrian territory

• Austria cedes the Austrian Netherlands and the
Rhine becomes the eastern border of France


The Cisalpine Republic
The Cisalpine Republic was for many years under the domination of the Empire of Austria.
The French Republic acquired it by right of conquest. She renounces dominion over it on this day, and
the Cisalpine Republic is now &ee and independent. Recognized by France and by the Emperor, as it
wi% soon be likewise by a% of Europe.
The Executive Directory of the French Republic, not content with having expended its influence and
the victories of the republican armies to ensure the political existence of the Cisalpine Republic,
pushes more faraway its promptnesses; and being convinced that, if liberty is first among a% good
things, a revolution leaves behind itself the worst of a% scourges, now gives to the Cisalpine people its
Constitution, which is the result of the knowledge of the most enlightened nation.
From a military regime, the Cisalpine people must therefore pass to a constitutional regime.
In order that this passage sha% be effected without disruption, without anarchy, the Executive
Directory has decided only this once to appoint the members of the government and of the legislative
branch, so that the people sha% not, until one year, appoint officials to fi% vacant offices according to
the Constitution.
In reality, no republics have existed in Italy for many years. The holy fire of liberty was stifled, and
the most beautiful part of Europe lived under the yoke of foreigners. It is up to the Cisalpine Republic
to show to the world with its wisdom and energy, and with the good organization of its armies, that
modern Italy has not degenerated, and that it is sti% worthy of &eedom.

Signed, Bonaparte.
—Preamble to the Constitution of the Cisalpine Republic, Messidor 20, l’an V (July 7, 1797).


The Cisalpine Republic


before the conquest

VENETIAN
REPUBLIC


after

CEDED TO AUSTRIA


America’s Quasi-war with France


America’s Quasi-war with France

USS Constellation vs Insurgente; 9 February 1799

The U.S. Naval Academy, Memorial Hall
(the heart of Bancroft Hall, built 1901-1906)


British economic-diplomatic-military-naval strategy

...the British blockade. The English refused to allow neutral ﬂags
[ships flying the flag of a neutral country] to cover enemy
merchandise, and, in order to seize the merchandise as well as
contraband of war, arrogated to themselves the right of search on
the high seas. In reality, they granted all sorts of licenses which
considerably attenuated the harshness of these rules, because they
were aimed much less at ruining the enemy’s military power than at
enabling the English merchants to earn money in his place. From
this point of view, there was no objection to even selling to the
enemy in order to obtain his currency; the blockade was mercantile
rather than warlike.

Lefebvre, p. 358


British economic-diplomatic-military-naval strategy
For twenty-three years, almost without interruption, the Royal
Navy maintained a blockade oﬀ the French coast
...the British blockade. The English refused to allow neutral ﬂags
[ships flying the flag of a neutral country] to cover enemy
merchandise, and, in order to seize the merchandise as well as
contraband of war, arrogated to themselves the right of search on
the high seas. In reality, they granted all sorts of licenses which
considerably attenuated the harshness of these rules, because they
were aimed much less at ruining the enemy’s military power than at
enabling the English merchants to earn money in his place. From
this point of view, there was no objection to even selling to the
enemy in order to obtain his currency; the blockade was mercantile
rather than warlike.

Lefebvre, p. 358


The three-legged stool of British Foreign Policy

1 Maintain the 2 Keep the mouth
Balance of Power of Scheldt (the
in Europe Netherlands) in
1 2 weak/friendly
hands

3

3 Seapower

French retaliation
• 1793- the beginning of war with Britain, the French navy had ventured out to
protect their trade as best they could and commissioned privateers to seize enemy
merchant ships

• 1795-America signed the Jay Treaty to resolve disputes remaining from the war for
independence. France interpreted as British-American alliance and soon began
seizing American merchant ships, over 300 in the ﬁrst two years

• December 1796-Hoche was ordered to embark ships for Ireland to aid a rebellion
there by the United Irishmen. Only a storm brought ruin the next year, as we have
seen


French retaliation
• 1793- the beginning of war with Britain, the French navy had ventured out to
protect their trade as best they could and commissioned privateers to seize enemy
merchant ships

• 1795-America signed the Jay Treaty to resolve disputes remaining from the war for
independence. France interpreted as British-American alliance and soon began
seizing American merchant ships, over 300 in the ﬁrst two years

• December 1796-Hoche was ordered to embark ships for Ireland to aid a rebellion
there by the United Irishmen. Only a storm brought ruin the next year, as we have
seen

• 1796-97-the XYZ Aﬀair involved three American diplomats, CC Pinckney,
Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall sent by President Adams to gain satisfaction for
the seizures. They were told by French agents, the mysterious monsieurs “X,” “Y”
and “Z,” that a bribe to Foreign Minister Talleyrand of $250,000 was a necessary
preliminary. Then a $10 million loan to the French government

• “Not one sixpence, sir! Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!”
-Charles Cotesworth Pinckney


French Revolution; session viii- Directoire

French Revolution; session viii- Directoire

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