1. Chapter one
What is psychology?

2. What is Psychology?
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.
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3. Psychology as a Science
Theories:
– Formulations of apparent relationships among
observed events.
– Theories allow for prediction.
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4. What Psychologists do
Pure research
no immediate application, research for its own sake
Applied research
designed to find solutions to specific personal or social problems
Practice psychology
applying psychological knowledge to
help individuals change their behavior
Teaching
sharing psychological knowledge.
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5. Fields of Psychology
What you want to be?

6. Fields of Psychology
Clinical psychologists:
– Help people with psychological disorders adjust to the
demands of life
– Largest subgroup of psychologists
Counseling psychologists:
– Similar to clinical psychologist but clients
typically have adjustment problems and not
serious psychological disorders
– More than half of all doctoral students are
in programs of clinical or counseling
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7. Fields of Psychology
School psychologists:
– Employed by school systems to assist
students with problems that interfere
with learning.
– One focus is that of placement of
students in special classes
Educational psychologists:
– Like school psychologists.
– Attempt to facilitate learning but focus on course planning,
instructional methods.
– Focus on motivation, intelligence, testing, and student and
teacher behavior.
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8. Fields of Psychology
Developmental psychologists:
– Study the changes, physical, cognitive, social and
personality, that occur throughout the life span.
Personality psychologists:
– Focus on identifying and measuring human traits,
determining influences on human thought processes,
feelings, and behavior and explaining psychological
disorders.
Social psychologists:
– Primarily concerned with individual’s thoughts, feelings,
and behavior in social situations.
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9. Fields of Psychology
Environmental psychologists:
– Study how people and environment influence each other
and
– Study ways to encourage recycling, for example.
Experimental psychologists:
– Conduct experiments, and
– Specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system,
sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought,
motivation, and emotion.
Industrial psychologists:
– Focus on the relationship between people and work.
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10. Fields of Psychology
Organizational psychologists:
– Focus on the relationship between people
and organizations such as business.
Human factors psychologists:
– Provide suggestions and create technical systems such as
dashboards, computer keyboards, etc. to be more user
friendly.
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11. Fields of Psychology
Consumer psychologists:
– Study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and
influence their behavior.
Health psychologists:
– Examine the ways in which behavior and mental processes
are related to health.
Sport psychologists:
– Help people improve their sports performance.
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12. Philosophical Contributions

13. Philosophical Contributions
Plato (ca.427-347 BC)
– Recorded Socrates’ advice to
“Know Thyself” which is a
motto of psychology.
– Also advanced Socrates
suggestion of relying on
rational thought and
introspection.
Democritus (around 400 BC)
– Suggested that we could think
of behavior in terms of a body
and mind (interaction of biological
and mental processes).
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14. Philosophical Contributions
Aristotle: (384-322 BC)
– Wrote “About the Psyche”
covering topics such as
personality, sensation,
perception, thought,
intelligence, needs,
motives, feelings,
emotions and memory.
– A proponent of
empiricism. (experimentation)
– He outlined the laws of
associationism.
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15. 19th Century Contributions

16. 19th Century Contributions
Gustav Theodore Fechner (1801-1887)
– Showed how physical events (light and sounds) are related to
psychological sensations and perceptions. Some consider this to be
the beginning of psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
– Gets the credit for being the founder of psychology.
– In 1879 he established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
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17. Structuralism and Functionalism
Structuralism
– Attempts to break conscious experience down into
• objective sensations such as sight, or taste, and
• the subjective feelings such as emotional responses.
– Believes that the mind functions by combining objective and
subjective elements of experience.
• Wundt was considered to be a Structuralist.
Functionalism
– In the study of individuals the focus should be on behavior as well as
the mind and consciousness.
– Look at how experience helps us function more adaptively in our
environments.
• William James (1842-1919) is often considered the first true
American Psychologist.
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18. Behaviorism: Practicing Psychology in Public
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
– Considered to be the founder of American Behaviorism.
– Believed that psychology should limit itself to observable, measurable
events and behavior.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
– Believed organisms learn to behave in certain ways because of
reinforcement.
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19. Gestalt Psychology: Making Psychology Whole
• Gestalt translates to “pattern” or “organized whole”.
• Demonstrated that learning is a accomplished by insight, not
by mechanical repetition.
• Founders included:
– Wertheimer (1880-1943),
– Koffka (1886-1941), and
– Kohler (1887-1967).
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20. Gestalt Psychology
The Importance of Context.
Gestalt psychologists have shown that our perceptions depend not only
on our sensory impressions but also on the context of our impressions.
You will interpret a man running toward you very differently depending
on whether you are on a deserted street at night or the beach in the
morning.
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21. Gestalt Psychology

22. Gestalt Psychology

23. Gestalt Psychology

24. Gestalt Psychology

25. Psychoanalysis: Digging beneath the surface
Focus on the unconscious - a seething cauldron of conflicting
impulses, urges and wishes.
– Founded by Sigmund Freud
– Often called psychodynamic
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26. Today’s Psychologists

27. Today’s Psychologists
Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives
– Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
– Much like Darwin, believe that inherited tendencies move us in certain
directions.
Cognitive Perspective: Keeping Psychology “In Mind”
– Mental processes to understand human nature
– How we perceive, learn, remember problem solve, etc. (the mind)
– Roots in Socrates, “know thyself”
Humanistic-Existential Perspective
– Humanistic – stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment
– Existentialism – views people as free to choose and as being
responsible for choosing ethical conduct.
Carl Rogers – Abraham Maslow
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28. Today’s Psychologists
Psychodynamic Perspective
– 1940s-50s
– Sigmund Freud
– Neoanalysts – Karen Horney and Erik Erikson
Perspectives on Learning
Effects of experience on behavior
 Theory 1 – people do things because of learning history, situations,
and rewards. (Watson)
 Theory 2 – people modify and create their own environments and
engage in intentional learning by observing others. (Social Learning)
The Sociocultural Perspective
– Ways people differ
– Influences of ethnicity, gender, culture and socioeconomic factors
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29. Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives
• Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
• Genes can be transmitted from generation to generation.
• Biological perspective seek the links between the electrical
and chemical activity of the brain.
– Use of PET and CAT scans.
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30. 1/24/11 Cognitive Perspective
• Venture into the realm of mental processes to understand
human nature.
• Cognitive psychologists study those things we refer to as the
mind.
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31. Humanistic-Existential Perspective
Humanism
– stresses the human capacity
for self-fulfillment.
Existentialism
– views people as free to choose
and be responsible for
choosing ethical conduct.
Stress the importance of
subjective experience.
– Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers; two prominent
psychologists in this area.
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32. Psychodynamic Perspective
• Freud’s influence continues to be felt though contemporary
psychodynamic theorists would likely call themselves neoanalysts.
• Famous neoanalysts include:
– Karen Horney (1885-1952)
– Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
– Former APA president
Dorothy Cantor.
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33. Perspectives on Learning
• Learning through repetition and reinforcement.
• Social-cognitive theorists
– formerly termed social learning theorists
– suggest that people can modify or even create their environments.
– Intentional learning by observing others.
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34. Sociocultural Perspective
• Addresses the ways people differ from one another.
• Studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and
socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes.
Ethnicity
• Ethnic groups are united by their cultural heritage, race, language, and common
history.
• Study cultural heritages and ethnic differences in vulnerability to problems.
Gender
• Refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity.
• Involves a complex web of cultural expectations and social roles.
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35. Ethnicity and Gender

36. Gender, Ethnicity, and Psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
– Studied at Harvard, completed her degree requirements, but Harvard
wouldn’t give her the degree. They were not admitting women.
– Pioneer in research in memory: primacy and recency effect.
– Became first female president of APA in 1905.
Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)
– Taught at Johns Hopkins and Columbia Universities.
– Formulated a theory of color vision.
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
– First woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology.
– Wrote The Animal Mind a work that would later become part of
behaviorism.
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37. Gender, Ethnicity, and Psychology
Helen Bradford Thompson (1874-1947)
– First psychologist to study psychological gender differences.
– Wrote a book in 1903 titled The Mental Traits of Sex.
• Today more than half of American college students are
women.
• Nearly 3/4 of the undergraduate degrees in psychology and
2/3 of the doctoral degrees are earned by women.
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38. Ethnicity and Psychology
• 1901 Gilbert Haven Jones, an African American, received his
Ph.D. in psychology in Germany.
• Kenneth Clark and Mamie Philips Clark.
• Jorge Sanchez was among the first to show how intelligence
tests are culturally biased.
• 6% of first year doctoral students are African American, 6%
are Asian American, 5% are Latino and about 1% are Native
American.
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39. Critical Thinking
and Pseudoscience

41. Critical Thinking & Pseudoscience
• Pseudoscience: false science.
• Critical thinking: taking nothing for granted. Thoughtfully
analyzing and probing questions, statements and arguments
of others.
Skills needed for critical thinking:
– Development of skepticism
– Ability to inquire about cause and effect
– Increase curiosity about behavior
– Knowledge of research methods
– Ability to analyze arguments carefully
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42. Principles of Critical Thinking
• Be skeptical.
• Examine definitions of terms.
• Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments.
• Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence.
• Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence.
• Do not oversimplify.
• Do not overgeneralize.
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43. Critical Thinking Task
Is square
“A” and “B”
the same
color?
Explain
your
answer.

44. The Scientific Method

45. The Scientific Method
Scientific method is an organized
way of using experience and
testing ideas in order to expand
and refine knowledge.
– Hypothesis: is a specific
statement about behavior or
mental processes that is tested
through research.
– Test the hypothesis through
controlled methods such as the
experiment.
– Replication: repeating a study to
see if the findings hold up over
time with different subjects.
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46. The Scientific Method
a. A systematic way of organizing and
expanding scientific knowledge.
b. Daily experiences, common beliefs,
and scientific observations all
contribute to the development of
theories.
c. Psychological theories explain
observations and lead to
hypotheses about behavior and
mental processes.
d. Observations can confirm the
theory or lead to its refinement or
abandonment.
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47. Samples and Populations
Sample
Individuals from a segment of the population who are studied.
Population
Group targeted for study.
Types of Sampling
Random sample:
each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected to participate.
Stratified sample:
selection is made so that identified subgroups in the population are
represented proportionately in the sample.
Volunteer bias:
people who volunteer as participants differ systematically from people
who do not.
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48. Methods of Observation
The Case Study
– Information collected about individuals and small groups.
– Anecdotes (Typically unscientific accounts of people’s behavior.)
– Compelling portraits but may have factual inaccuracies.
The Survey
– Used to study individuals who cannot be observed in the natural
setting or studied scientifically.
– Employs questionnaires and interviews or public records.
Naturalistic Observation
– Observe people in their natural habitats.
– Unobtrusive measures are used to avoid
interfering with the observed behaviors.
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49. Correlation
• Investigates whether one observed behavior or trait is
related to (correlated) with another.
• Mathematically expressed as a correlation coefficient; a
number the varies between +1.00 and -1.00.
– Positive correlation: the higher scores on one variable tend to
correspond with higher scores on the second variable. Low with low.
(e.g. Intelligence test scores and academic performance).
– Negative correlation: Higher scores on one variable tend to
correspond with lower scores on the second. (e.g. Amount of stress
experienced and functioning of the immune system).
How things are Related
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50. Correlation

51. Correlational Relationships, Cause, & Effect
Correlational relationships may suggest but do not
demonstrate cause and effect.
Consider the examples of academic grades (X) and juvenile
delinquency (Y) in part B. Do poor grades lead to delinquency, Does
delinquency lead to poor grades, or do other variables such as broken
home or peer influences contribute to poor grades and delinquency.

52. Experiments
The preferred method for answering questions about cause and
effect. Involves Independent and Dependent Variables.
Independent variable:
• manipulated by the experimenters so that the effects of various levels
may be determined.
Dependent variable:
• the measured outcome or result.
Experimental and Control Groups
• Experimental groups obtain the treatment.
• Control groups do not receive the treatment.
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53. Experiments
• Placebo or “sugar pill”
• Blind study:
control for the expectations of effects by creating
conditions where the subjects are unaware of the
treatment
• Double blind study:
neither the subjects nor the experimenters know who
has obtained the treatment
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54. Experiments
Figure 1.7 The Experimental Conditions in the Lang Study. The taste of vodka cannot be discerned when
vodka is mixed with tonic water. For this reason it was possible for subjects in the Lang study on the effects of
alcohol to be kept blind as to whether or not they had actually drunk alcohol. Blind studies allow psychologists
to control for the effects of subjects’ expectations.
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55. Ethical Issues

56. Ethical Issues in Research & Practice
Basic standards
– Intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare and scientific
integrity.
– Do not undertake research methods that are harmful.
Research with Humans
– Ethics review committees review research according to ethical
guidelines.
– Informed consent: individuals give consent before they can
participate in research.
– Confidentiality is kept.
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57. Controversy in Psychology
Is it ethical for psychologist to deceive research participants
about the methods and objectives of their research?
APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
– May deceive only when the benefits of the research outweigh the
potential harm.
– The individuals would have been willing to participate if they had
understood the benefits.
– Subjects are debriefed
(the purposes and methods of the research are explained afterward.)
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58. Research with Nonhuman Animals
• Psychologists generalize to humans the results of research
conducted with animals.
• Animals may be harmed only when there is no alternative; when
the researchers believe that the benefits justify the harm.
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59. Questio
ns
&
Comme
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