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 Circulation and Gas Exchange Chapter 42 (all),[object Object],4-17-06,[object Object]
Overview: Trading with the Environment,[object Object],Every organism must exchange materials with its environment (whether it be nutrients or gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide),[object Object],And this exchange ultimately occurs at the cellular level,[object Object]
In unicellular organisms,[object Object],These exchanges occur directly with the environment across the cell membrane.  Diffusion is adequate for necessary rapid exchange.,[object Object],For most of the cells making up multicellular organisms direct exchange with the environment is not possible because diffusion distances are too great!  Therefore specialized exchange and transport systems have evolved!,[object Object]
Gills as exchange sites in aquatic animals!,[object Object],Figure 42.1,[object Object],The feathery gills projecting from a salmon,[object Object],Are an example of a specialized exchange system found in animals,[object Object],Gill arch with filaments which have lamellae on both sides!,[object Object],Surface area of gill equal body skin surface area!,[object Object]
Transport systems,[object Object],Functionally connect the organs of exchange with the body cells where nutrients and oxygen required!,[object Object],Most complex animals have internal transport systems providing a conduit between the evironment and the cell cytoplasm!,[object Object]
Invertebrate Circulation,[object Object],The wide range of invertebrate body size and form is paralleled by a great diversity in circulatory systems.  Water vascular system in star fish, open circulatory systems in insects and closed circulatory systems in earth worms and squids.,[object Object]
Gastrovascular Cavities,[object Object],Simple animals, such as cnidarians,[object Object],Have a body wall only two cells thick that encloses a gastrovascular cavity (recall sea anemone sac with a mouth!),[object Object],The gastrovascular cavity,[object Object],Functions in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body.  Also gas exchange for cells lining the cavity.,[object Object]
Circularcanal,[object Object],Radial canal,[object Object],Mouth,[object Object],5 cm,[object Object],Figure 42.2,[object Object],Some cnidarians, such as jellies,[object Object],Have elaborate gastrovascular cavities with canals radiating off the central sac!,[object Object]
Open and Closed Circulatory Systems,[object Object],More complex animals,[object Object],Have one of two types of circulatory systems: open or closed,[object Object],Both of these types of systems have three basic components,[object Object],A circulatory fluid (blood),[object Object],A set of tubes (blood vessels),[object Object],A muscular pump (the heart),[object Object]
Heart,[object Object],Hemolymph in sinusessurrounding ograns,[object Object],Ostia,[object Object],Anterior vessel,[object Object],Lateral vessels,[object Object],Tubular heart,[object Object],Figure 42.3a,[object Object],(a) An open circulatory system,[object Object],Open circulatory systems,[object Object],In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs,[object Object],Blood bathes the organs and tissues directly in an open circulatory system,[object Object],Valves in heart so blood flow is unidirectional ,[object Object],No interstitial space or fluid!,[object Object]
Closed Circulatory System ,[object Object],Heart,[object Object],Interstitialfluid,[object Object],Small branch vessels in each organ,[object Object],Dorsal vessel(main heart),[object Object],Ventral vessels,[object Object],Auxiliary hearts,[object Object],(b) A closed circulatory system,[object Object],Figure 42.3b,[object Object],In a closed circulatory system,[object Object],Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid,[object Object],Closed systems,[object Object],are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells.,[object Object],Earthworm an annelid is the first time we see a closed circulatory system!,[object Object]
Survey of Vertebrate Circulation,[object Object],Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system often called the cardiovascular system.,[object Object],Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system consisting of blood vessels and a two- to four-chambered heart.,[object Object],Arteries carry blood from heart to capillaries,[object Object],The capillaries are the  sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid,[object Object],Veins collect blood from capillaries and return blood to the heart.,[object Object],Types of hearts!,[object Object]
Lung capillaries,[object Object],Lung capillaries,[object Object],Lung and skin capillaries,[object Object],Gill capillaries,[object Object],AMPHIBIANS,[object Object],REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS),[object Object],MAMMALS AND BIRDS,[object Object],FISHES ,[object Object],Right systemicaorta,[object Object],Pulmonarycircuit,[object Object],Pulmocutaneouscircuit,[object Object],Artery,[object Object],Pulmonarycircuit,[object Object],Gillcirculation,[object Object],Heart:ventricle (V),[object Object],Left ,[object Object],Systemicaorta,[object Object],A,[object Object],A,[object Object],A,[object Object],A,[object Object],A,[object Object],A,[object Object],Atrium (A),[object Object],V,[object Object],V,[object Object],V,[object Object],V,[object Object],V,[object Object],Left ,[object Object],Right,[object Object],Left ,[object Object],Left ,[object Object],Right,[object Object],Right,[object Object],Systemiccirculation,[object Object],Systemic circuit,[object Object],Systemic circuit,[object Object],Vein,[object Object],Systemic capillaries,[object Object],Systemic capillaries,[object Object],Systemic capillaries,[object Object],Systemic capillaries,[object Object],Figure 42.4,[object Object],Vertebrate circulatory systems,[object Object]
Fishes- two chambered heart!,[object Object],A fish heart has two main chambers,[object Object],One ventricle and one atrium and blood pumped from the ventricle through the gills,[object Object],     where it is loaded with oxygen and unloadsf  CO2.  It then travels through the dorsal aorta to the organs and tissues thru capillary beds and is returned to the heart as venous blood.  Where does heart get its oxygen?  Enough remains in the venous blood.  In some active species (Tuna fishes) a branch off the ventral aorta supplies oxygenated blood to the heart. ,[object Object]
Amphibians,[object Object],Frogs and other amphibians have a three-chambered heart, with two atria and one ventricle,[object Object],The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery that splits the ventricle’s output into the pulmocutaneous circuit (lung and skin) and the systemic circuit.  Thus a certain amount of mixing of oxygenated and oxygen poor blood occures.  ,[object Object]
Reptiles (Except Birds),[object Object],Reptiles have double circulation,[object Object],With a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a systemic circuit,[object Object],Turtles, snakes, and lizards,[object Object],Have a three-chambered heart.  ,[object Object]
Mammals and Birds,[object Object],In all mammals and birds,[object Object],The ventricle is completely divided into separate right and left chambers,[object Object],The left side of the heart pumps and receives only oxygen-rich blood,[object Object],While the right side receives and pumps only oxygen-poor blood,[object Object]
A powerful four-chambered heart,[object Object],Was an essential adaptation of the endothermic way of life characteristic of mammals and birds.  Reason is because of metabolism being almost 10 times greater than the ectotherms!,[object Object]
A powerful four-chambered heart was an essential adaptation of the endothermic way of life characteristic of mammals and birds.  Reason is because of metabolism being almost 10 times greater than the ectotherms!,[object Object],Double circulation in mammals depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart (Good model).,[object Object],Heart valves dictate a one-way flow of blood through the heart.,[object Object],Blood begins its flow,[object Object],With the right ventricle pumping blood to the lungs,[object Object],In the lungs,[object Object],The blood loads O2 and unloads CO2,[object Object]
Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs,[object Object],Enters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped to the body tissues by the left ventricle,[object Object],Blood returns to the heart,[object Object],Through the right atrium,[object Object]
Capillaries of,[object Object],head and ,[object Object],forelimbs ,[object Object],Anterior,[object Object],vena cava,[object Object],Aorta,[object Object],Pulmonary,[object Object],artery,[object Object],Pulmonary,[object Object],artery,[object Object],9,[object Object],6,[object Object],3,[object Object],3,[object Object],7,[object Object],8,[object Object],Capillaries,[object Object],of right lung,[object Object],Capillaries,[object Object],of left lung,[object Object],2,[object Object],4,[object Object],11,[object Object],Pulmonary ,[object Object],vein,[object Object],Pulmonary ,[object Object],vein,[object Object],Left atrium,[object Object],5,[object Object],1,[object Object],Right atrium,[object Object],10,[object Object],Left ventricle,[object Object],Right ventricle,[object Object],Aorta,[object Object],Posterior,[object Object],vena cava,[object Object],Capillaries of,[object Object],abdominal organs,[object Object],and hind limbs,[object Object],Figure 42.5,[object Object],The mammalian cardiovascular system,[object Object],See text for description of sequential events,[object Object]
The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look,[object Object],Pulmonary artery,[object Object],Aorta,[object Object],Pulmonaryveins,[object Object],Pulmonaryartery,[object Object],Anterior vena cava,[object Object],Leftatrium,[object Object],Right atrium,[object Object],Pulmonaryveins,[object Object],Atrioventricularvalve,[object Object],Semilunarvalve,[object Object],Semilunarvalve,[object Object],Atrioventricularvalve,[object Object],Posterior vena cava,[object Object],Right ventricle,[object Object],Figure 42.6,[object Object],Left ventricle,[object Object],A closer look at the mammalian heart,[object Object],Provides a better understanding of how double circulation works,[object Object],In fetus ductus artieriosus shunts blood from pulmonary artery into the aorta.  Closes off at birth when the lungs inflate!,[object Object]
The heart contracts and relaxes,[object Object],In a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle,[object Object],The contraction, or pumping, phase of the cycle,[object Object],Is called systole,[object Object],The relaxation, or filling, phase of the cycle,[object Object],Is called diastole,[object Object]
Atrial systole; ventricular diastole,[object Object],2,[object Object],Semilunarvalvesclosed,[object Object],0.1 sec,[object Object],Semilunarvalvesopen,[object Object],0.3 sec,[object Object],0.4 sec,[object Object],AV valvesopen,[object Object],Atrial and ventricular diastole,[object Object],AV valvesclosed,[object Object],1,[object Object],3,[object Object],Ventricular systole; atrial diastole,[object Object],Figure 42.7,[object Object],The cardiac cycle: filling of chambers longest!,[object Object]
The heart rate, also called the pulse,[object Object],Is the number of beats per minute,[object Object],The cardiac output,[object Object],Is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and depends on the rate of contraction and the stroke volume (how much blood  is “loaded” into the ventricle during diastole).,[object Object]
Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat,[object Object],Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable (myogenic),[object Object],Meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system (heart transplant).,[object Object],A region of the heart called the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract,[object Object],Impulses from the SA node spread across the atria to the atrioventricular (AV) node,[object Object],At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel down bundle fiber to the  the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract,[object Object]
The impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle,[object Object],Can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG),[object Object]
Signals pass,[object Object],to heart apex.,[object Object],Signals spread,[object Object],throughoutventricles.,[object Object],Pacemaker generates wave of signals in the atriato contract.  ,[object Object],Signals are delayed,[object Object],at AV node.,[object Object],Bundlebranches,[object Object],AV node,[object Object],SA node(pacemaker),[object Object],Purkinjefibers,[object Object],Heartapex,[object Object],ECG,[object Object],2,[object Object],1,[object Object],3,[object Object],4,[object Object],Figure 42.8,[object Object],The control of heart rhythm,[object Object],The impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram   (EKG),[object Object]
The pacemaker is influenced by,[object Object],Nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise,[object Object]
Blood Circulation,[object Object],The same physical principles that govern the movement of water in plumbing systems,[object Object],Also influence the functioning of animal circulatory systems.,[object Object],Structure of circulatory system is a network of vessels that are differ in structure to accommodate function.,[object Object]
5,0004,000,[object Object],3,000,[object Object],2,000,[object Object],1,000,[object Object],0,[object Object],Area (cm2),[object Object],5040,[object Object],30,[object Object],20,[object Object],10,[object Object],0,[object Object],Velocity (cm/sec),[object Object],120100,[object Object],80,[object Object],60,[object Object],40,[object Object],20,[object Object],0,[object Object],Systolicpressure,[object Object],Pressure (mm Hg),[object Object],Diastolicpressure,[object Object],Aorta,[object Object],Veins,[object Object],Arteries,[object Object],Venules,[object Object],Capillaries,[object Object],Arterioles,[object Object],Venae cavae,[object Object],Figure 42.11,[object Object],The velocity of blood flow varies in the circulatory system,[object Object],And is slowest in the capillary beds as a result of the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area,[object Object]
Vein,[object Object],Artery,[object Object],Valve,[object Object],Endothelium,[object Object],Basementmembrane,[object Object],Smoothmuscle,[object Object],100 µm,[object Object],Endothelium,[object Object],Connectivetissue,[object Object],Endothelium,[object Object],Smoothmuscle,[object Object],Capillary,[object Object],Connectivetissue,[object Object],Artery,[object Object],Vein,[object Object],Venule,[object Object],Arteriole,[object Object],Figure 42.9,[object Object],All blood vessels,[object Object],Are built of similar tissues,[object Object],Have three similar layers,[object Object],Basement membrane composed of mucopolysaccharides and collagen fibers. Not a barrier to diffusion of molecules.,[object Object],Arteries have thicker walls to accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart.  Veins thinner walls.,[object Object]
Direction of blood flowin vein (toward heart),[object Object],Valve (open),[object Object],Skeletal muscle,[object Object],Valve (closed),[object Object],Figure 42.10,[object Object],In the thinner-walled veins,[object Object],Blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action,[object Object]
Blood Flow Velocity,[object Object],Physical laws governing the movement of fluids through pipes,[object Object],Influence blood flow and blood pressure,[object Object]
Blood pressure,[object Object],Is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel,[object Object],Systolic pressure,[object Object],Is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole,[object Object],Is the highest pressure in the arteries,[object Object],Diastolic pressure,[object Object],Is the pressure in the arteries during diastole,[object Object],Is lower than systolic pressure,[object Object]
1,[object Object],3,[object Object],     A typical blood pressure reading for a 20-year-oldis 120/70. The units for these numbers are mm of mercury (Hg); a blood pressure of 120 is a force that can support a column of mercury 120 mm high.,[object Object],4,[object Object],      The cuff is loosened further until the blood flows freely through the artery and the sounds below the cuff disappear. The pressure at this point is the diastolic pressure remaining in the artery when the heart is relaxed.,[object Object],Blood pressure,[object Object],reading: 120/70,[object Object],Pressurein cuff above 120,[object Object],Pressurein cuff below 120,[object Object],Pressurein cuff below 70,[object Object],Rubber cuffinflatedwith air,[object Object],120,[object Object],120,[object Object],70,[object Object],Sounds stop,[object Object],Sounds audible instethoscope,[object Object],Artery,[object Object],Arteryclosed,[object Object],     A stethoscope is used to listen for sounds of blood flow below the cuff. If the artery is closed, there is no pulse below the cuff. The cuff is gradually deflated until blood begins to flow into the forearm, and sounds from blood pulsing into the artery below the cuff can be heard with the stethoscope. This occurs when the blood pressure is greater than the pressure exerted by the cuff. The pressure at this point is the systolic pressure.,[object Object],     A sphygmomanometer, an inflatable cuff attached to apressure gauge, measures blood pressure in an artery.The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated until the pressure closes the artery, so that no blood flows past the cuff. When this occurs, the pressure exerted by the cuff exceeds the pressure in the artery.,[object Object],2,[object Object],Figure 42.12,[object Object],Blood pressure,[object Object],Can be easily measured in humans,[object Object]
Blood pressure is determined partly by cardiac output,[object Object],And partly by peripheral resistance due to variable constriction of the arterioles (anaphylactic shock).  ,[object Object],For high blood pressure try and reduce peripheral resistance using smooth muscle relaxants!,[object Object]
Capillary Function,[object Object],Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity,[object Object],But in many other sites, the blood supply varies.  Homeostatic mechanisms involved to keep blood pressure constant!  ,[object Object]
Control of Blood Flow Through Capillaries,[object Object],Two mechanisms,[object Object],Regulate the distribution of blood in capillary beds,[object Object],In one mechanism,[object Object],Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel,[object Object]
Thoroughfare,[object Object],channel,[object Object],Precapillary sphincters,[object Object],(a) Sphincters relaxed,[object Object],Venule,[object Object],Arteriole,[object Object],Capillaries,[object Object],(b) Sphincters contracted,[object Object],Venule,[object Object],Arteriole,[object Object],(c) Capillaries and larger vessels (SEM) ,[object Object],Figure 42.13 a–c,[object Object],20 m,[object Object],In a second mechanism,[object Object],Precapillary sphincters control the flow of blood between arterioles and venules,[object Object]
The critical exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid,[object Object],Takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries,[object Object]
Tissue cell,[object Object],INTERSTITIAL FLUID,[object Object],Net fluid,[object Object],movement in,[object Object],Net fluid,[object Object],movement out,[object Object],Capillary,[object Object],Capillary,[object Object],Red,[object Object],blood,[object Object],cell,[object Object],15 m,[object Object],At the venule end of a capillary, blood pressure is less than osmotic pressure, and fluid flows from the interstitial fluid into the capillary.,[object Object],Direction of ,[object Object],blood flow,[object Object],At the arterial end of a,[object Object],capillary, blood pressure is,[object Object],greater than osmotic pressure,,[object Object],and fluid flows out of the,[object Object],capillary into the interstitial fluid.,[object Object],Blood pressure,[object Object],Osmotic pressure,[object Object],Inward flow,[object Object],Pressure,[object Object],Outward flow,[object Object],Venule end,[object Object],Arterial end of capillary,[object Object],Figure 42.14,[object Object],The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure,[object Object],Drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end,[object Object],Osmotic pressure in capillary due to plasma proteins!,[object Object]
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System,[object Object],The lymphatic system,[object Object],Returns fluid to the body from the capillary beds,[object Object],Aids in body defense because it passes through lymph nodes where white blood cells take out any pathogens or foreign material!,[object Object],Fluid reenters the circulation,[object Object],Directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system,[object Object]
Blood,[object Object],Separatedbloodelements,[object Object],The cellular elements of mammalian blood,[object Object],Cellular elements 45%,[object Object],Functions,[object Object],Cell type,[object Object],Numberper L (mm3) of blood,[object Object],Erythrocytes(red blood cells),[object Object],Transport oxygenand help transportcarbon dioxide,[object Object],5–6 million,[object Object],Defense andimmunity,[object Object],Leukocytes(white blood cells),[object Object],5,000–10,000,[object Object],Lymphocyte,[object Object],Basophil,[object Object],Eosinophil,[object Object],Neutrophil,[object Object],Monocyte,[object Object],Platelets,[object Object],250,000400,000 ,[object Object],Blood clotting,[object Object],Figure 42.15,[object Object]
Plasma,[object Object],Blood plasma is about 90% water,[object Object],Among its many solutes are,[object Object],Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, sometimes referred to as electrolytes,[object Object]
Plasma 55%,[object Object],Constituent,[object Object],Major functions,[object Object],Solvent for,[object Object],carrying other,[object Object],substances,[object Object],Water,[object Object],(blood electrolytes),[object Object],Sodium,[object Object],Potassium,[object Object],CalciumMagnesium,[object Object],Chloride,[object Object],Bicarbonate,[object Object],Osmotic balance,[object Object],pH buffering, and,[object Object],regulation of ,[object Object],membrane,[object Object],permeability,[object Object],Separatedbloodelements,[object Object],Plasma proteins,[object Object],Albumin,[object Object],Fibringen,[object Object],Immunoglobulins,[object Object],(antibodies),[object Object],Osmotic balance,,[object Object],pH buffering,[object Object],Clotting,[object Object],Defense,[object Object],Substances transported by blood,[object Object],Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins),[object Object],Waste products of metabolism,[object Object],Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2),[object Object],Hormones,[object Object],Figure 42.15,[object Object],The composition of mammalian plasma,[object Object]
Erythrocytes,[object Object],Red blood cells, or erythrocytes,[object Object],Are by far the most numerous blood cells,[object Object],Transport oxygen throughout the body,[object Object],Platelets function in blood clotting,[object Object]
Blood Clotting,[object Object],3,[object Object],The clotting process begins when the endothelium of a vessel is damaged, exposing connective tissue in the vessel wall to blood. Platelets,[object Object],adhere to collagen fibers in ,[object Object],the connective tissue and release a substance that,[object Object],makes nearby platelets sticky.,[object Object],The platelets form a plug that provides,[object Object],emergency protection,[object Object],against blood loss.,[object Object],This seal is reinforced by a clot of fibrin when vessel damage is severe. Fibrin is formed via amultistep process: Clotting factors released fromthe clumped platelets or damaged cells mix withclotting factors in the plasma, forming an   activation cascade that converts a plasma proteincalled prothrombin to its active form, thrombin.Thrombin itself is an enzyme that catalyzes the final step of the clotting process, the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. The threads of fibrin become interwoven into a patch (see colorized SEM).,[object Object],2,[object Object],1,[object Object],Collagen fibers,[object Object],Fibrin clot,[object Object],Plateletplug,[object Object],Red blood cell,[object Object],Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby platelets sticky,[object Object],  Clotting factors from:	Platelets	Damaged cells	Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K),[object Object],Prothrombin,[object Object],Thrombin ,[object Object],Fibrin,[object Object],Figure 42.17,[object Object],Fibrinogen,[object Object],5 µm,[object Object],A cascade of complex reactions,[object Object],Converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot,[object Object],A baby aspirin per day makes the platelets lazy!,[object Object],Hemophiliacs,[object Object]

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