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Theresa Lowry-Lehnen
RGN, BSc (Hon’s) Nursing Science, PGCC, Dip Counselling, Dip Psychotherapy,
BSc (Hon’s) Clinical Science, PGCE (QTS), H. Dip. Ed, MEd
PhD student Health Psychology
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Developmental psychology is the branch of
psychology and the scientific study of how people
grow and change over the course of a lifetime.
Originally concerned with infants and children, it
expanded to include adolescence, adult
development, ageing, and the entire lifespan.
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This field examines change across a broad range of
topics including motor skills and other psychophysiological processes; cognitive development
involving areas such as;
problem solving,
moral understanding
conceptual understanding
language acquisition
social, personality
emotional development
self-concept and identity formation.
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The scientific study of development is important
not only to psychology, but also to
sociology, education, and health care.
The study of human development is important in a
number of subjects, including
biology, anthropology, sociology, education, histor
y, and psychology.
Most important, however, are the practical
applications of studying human development.
By better understanding how and why people
change and grow, the knowledge can be applied to
help people live up to their full potential.
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There have been a number of important debates
and issues throughout the history of
developmental psychology.
Some of the major questions posed by
psychologists and researchers are centred on the
relative contributions of genetics versus
environment, the process through which
development occurs, and the overall importance of
early experiences versus that of later events.
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The classic issue in child development research is
the ‘Nature Vs. Nurture’ debate.
Does genetic inheritance play a larger role in
influencing development and behaviour, or does
the environment have a stronger effect?
Today, most psychologists recognize that both
elements play an essential role, but the debate
continues over many developmental questions
about topics ranging from academic aptitude to
sexual orientation.
Early Experience vs. Later Experience
 A second important consideration in
developmental psychology involves the relative
importance of early experiences versus those
that occur later in life. Are we more affected by
events that occur in early childhood, or do later
events play an equally important role?
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
 A third major issue in developmental psychology is
that of continuity.
 Does change occur smoothly over time, or through
a series of predetermined steps?
 Most theories of development fall under three
broad areas:
 Psychoanalytical theories
 Learning theories
 Cognitive theories
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Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the
work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood
experiences. Freud's contribution to developmental
theory was his proposal that development occurs
through a series of psychosexual stages
Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by
proposing an 8 stage theory of psychosocial
development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts
that arise at different stages of development
and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described
development throughout the lifespan.
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Learning theories focus on how the environment
impacts behaviour. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning, operant
conditioning and social learning. In each
case, behaviour is shaped by the interaction
between the individual and the environment.
Cognitive theories focus on the development of
mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of
cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of
cognitive development.
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development
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Proposed by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the theory of
psychosexual development describes how personality
develops during childhood.
While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one
of the most controversial theories.
Freud believed that personality develops through a series of
childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of
the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This
psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving
force behind behaviour.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large
role in personality development and continue to influence
behaviour later in life.
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development
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If these psychosexual stages are completed
successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If
certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate
stage, fixation can occur.
A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier
psychosexual stage.
Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person
who is fixated at the oral stage may be overdependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
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Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is
one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson
believed that personality develops in a series of
stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual
stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial
stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop
through social interaction. According to Erikson, our
ego identity is constantly changing due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others.
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When psychologists talk about identity, they are
referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values
that help shape and guide a person's behaviour.
The formation of identity is something that begins
in childhood and becomes particularly important
during adolescence, but it is a process that
continues throughout life.
Our personal identity gives each of us an
integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
and continues to grow as we age.
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In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed
that a sense of competence motivates behaviours
and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is
concerned with becoming competent in an area of
life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel
a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to
as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy.
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In each stage, Erikson believed people experience
a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centred on
either developing a psychological quality or failing
to develop that quality.
During these times, the potential for personal
growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
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Learning Theories: Behaviourism
During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school
of thought known as behaviourism rose to become a
dominant force within psychology.
Behaviourists believed that psychology needed to focus only
on observable and quantifiable behaviours in order to
become a more scientific discipline.
According to the behavioural perspective, all human
behaviour can be described in terms of environmental
influences. Some behaviourists, such as John B.
Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely
through processes of association and reinforcement.
Later, psychologist Albert Bandura rejected this narrow
perspective and demonstrated the powerful effects of
observational learning.
Learning Theories: Behaviourism
Classical Conditioning- A process of behaviour
modification by which a subject comes to respond in a
desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that
has been repeatedly presented along with an
unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired
response. (Stimulus ->Response)
Operant conditioning- is a method of learning that
occurs through rewards and punishments for
behaviour. Through these rewards and
punishments, an association is made between a
behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.
Social Child Development Theories
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There is a great deal of research on the social
development of children.
John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories
of social development.
He believed that early relationships with caregivers
play a major role in child development and
continue to influence social relationships
throughout life.
Social Learning Theory
 The social learning theory proposed by Albert
Bandura has become perhaps the most influential
theory of learning and development. While rooted in
many of the basic concepts of traditional learning
theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement
could not account for all types of learning.
 His theory added a social element, arguing that
people can learn new information and behaviours by
watching other people. Known as observational
learning (or modelling), this type of learning can be
used to explain a wide variety of behaviours.
Social Learning Theory
Basic Social Learning Concepts
 There are three core concepts at the heart of social
learning theory.
 First is the idea that people can learn through
observation.
 Second is the idea that internal mental states are
an essential part of this process.
 Thirdly, this theory recognizes that just because
something has been learned, it does not mean
that it will result in a change in behaviour.
Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning
 In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated
that children learn and imitate behaviours they have
observed in other people.
 Bandura et al (1963) carried out a classic study on
observational learning or modelling- where young children
were shown one of two films.
 One film showed a female adult behaving in an aggressive
way towards a bobo doll.
 The other film showed a female adult behaving nonaggressively.
 The children who had watched the adult behave
aggressively were much more likely to attack the bobo doll
than those who had watched the non-aggressive film.
Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning
 Bandura (1965) carried out another study on aggressive
behaviour.
 One group of children were shown a film of an adult kicking
and punching a bobo doll.
 The 2nd group saw the same aggressive behaviour
performed by the adult but this time the adult was rewarded
by another adult for their behaviour.
 A 3rd group saw the same aggressive behaviour, but this time
the adult was punished by another adult, who warned them
not to be so aggressive in the future.
 Those children who had seen the model rewarded or seen
the model neither rewarded or punished- behaved much
more aggressively to the doll than those who had seen the
model punished
Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning
 Bandura identified three basic models of
observational learning:
 A live model, which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behaviour.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behaviour.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional
characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
Social Learning Theory
Intrinsic Reinforcement
 Bandura noted that external, environmental
reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behaviour.
 He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of
internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a
sense of accomplishment.
 This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive
developmental theories.
 While many textbooks place social learning theory
with behavioural theories, Bandura himself describes
his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'
Social Learning Theory
Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour.
 While behaviourists believe that learning leads to a

permanent change in behaviour, observational
learning demonstrates that people can learn new
information without demonstrating new
behaviours.
The Modelling Process
 Not all observed behaviours are effectively
learned. Factors involving both the model and the
learner can play a role in whether social learning is
successful. Certain requirements and steps must
also be followed.
Social Learning Theory
Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything
that detracts your attention is going to have a negative
effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting
or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more
likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.
 Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of
the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number
of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act
on it is vital to observational learning.
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Social Learning Theory
Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained
the information, it is time to actually perform the
behaviour you observed. Further practice of the learned
behaviour leads to improvement and skill advancement.
 Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be
successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the
behaviour that has been
modelled. Reinforcement and punishment play an
important role in motivation. While experiencing these
motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other
experience some type of reinforcement or punishment.
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Social Learning Theory
In addition to influencing other
psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has
had important implication in the field of education.
Today, both teachers and parents recognize the
importance of modelling appropriate behaviours.
Other classroom strategies such as encouraging
children and building self-efficacy are also rooted
in social learning theory.
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Social Theories
Lev Vygotsky- proposed a seminal learning theory
that has gone on to become very
influential, especially in the field of education. Like
Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn
actively and through hands-on experiences.
His socio-cultural theory also suggested that
parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large
were responsible for the development of higher
order functions.
Cognitive Theories:
Cognitive theories of development look at how
thought processes and mental operations influence
growth and change.
 Jean Piaget created one of the most famous theories
of cognitive development, suggesting that children
are not just passive recipients of information.
 Instead, he proposed that children are little scientists"
who actively construct their knowledge and
understanding of the world.
 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development accounts for
the steps and sequence of children's intellectual
development.
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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Moral development is a major topic of interest in both
psychology and education. One of the best known
theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence
Kohlberg who modified and expanded upon Jean
Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the
development of moral reasoning.
Piaget described a two-stage process of moral
development, while Kohlberg's theory of moral
development outlined six stages within three
different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's
theory, proposing that moral development is a
continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
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Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with
groups of young children. A series of moral dilemmas were
presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to
determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario.
"The Heinz Dilemma” -Heinz Steals the Drug
"In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a
druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make.
He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.
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The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let
him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to
make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to
steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
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Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to
the question of whether Heinz was wrong or right, but
in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The
responses were then classified into various stages of
reasoning in his theory of moral development.
Level 1. Pre-conventional Morality
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially
common in young children, but adults are also capable
of expressing this type of reasoning. At this
stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.
Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to
avoid punishment.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
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Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children
account for individual points of view and judge
actions based on how they serve individual needs.
In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the
best course of action was the choice that bestserved Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this
point in moral development, but only if it serves
one's own interests.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
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Level 2. Conventional Morality
Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl"
orientation, this stage of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles.
There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and
consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to
consider society as a whole when making judgments.
The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Level 3. Post-conventional Morality
Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing
values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of
law are important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon
universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At
this stage, people follow these internalized principles
of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:
 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behaviour?
Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a
big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our
actual actions.
 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should
consider? Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of
moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when
making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring and
other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.
 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy?
Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while
collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and
community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks
that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Developmental milestones are abilities that most
children are able to perform by a certain age. During
the first year of a child’s life, physical milestones are
centred on the infant learning to master selfmovement, hold objects and hand-to-mouth
coordination.
 From Birth to 3 Months
 At this age, most babies begin to:
 Use rooting, sucking and grasping reflexes
 Slightly raise the head when lying on the stomach
 Hold head up for a few seconds with support
 Clench hands into fists
 Tug and pull on their own hands
 Repeat body movements
From 3 to 6 Months
 At this age, babies begin to
develop greater agility and
strength. They also begin
to:
 Roll over
 Pull their bodies forward
 Pull themselves up by
grasping the edge of the
crib
 Reach for and grasp object
 Bring object they are
holding to their mouths
 Shake and play with
objects

From 6 to 9 Months
 During this time, children
become increasingly
mobile. They usually begin
to:
 Crawl
 Grasp and pull object
toward their own body
 Transfer toys and objects
from one hand to the
other
From 9 to 12 Months
 In addition to the major
milestones such as standing
up and walking, children also
begin to develop more
advanced fine-motor skills. In
this window of
development, most babies
are able to:
 Sit up unaided
 Stand without assistance
 Walk without help
 Pick up and throw objects
 Roll a ball
 Pick up objects between
their thumb and one finger

From 1 to 2 Years
 Children become increasingly
independent and this age and
tasks requiring balance and
hand-eye coordination begin to
emerge. During this stage of
development, most children
are able to:
 Pick things up while standing
up
 Walk backwards
 Walk up and down stair
without assistance
 Move and sway to music
 Colour or paint by moving the
entire arm
 Scribble with markers or
crayons
 Turn knobs and handles
From 2 to 3 Years
 Building on earlier
skills, children become
increasingly adept at activities
that require coordination and
speed. From one to three years
of age, most kids begin to:
 Run in a forward direction
 Jump in one place
 Kick a ball
 Stand on one foot
 Turn pages of a book
 Draw a circle
 Hold a crayon between the
thumb and fingers

From 3 to 4 Years
 Physical abilities become
more advanced as children
develop better movement
and balance skills. From
age three to four, most kids
begin to:
 Ride a tricycle
 Go down a slide without
help
 Throw and catch a ball
 Pull and steer toys
 Walk in a straight line
 Build a tall towers with
toy blocks
 Manipulate clay into
shapes
From 4 to 5 Years
 During this period of development, children
become increasingly confident in their abilities.
Most children begin to:
 Jump on one foot
 Walk backwards
 Do somersaults
 Cut paper with safety scissors
 Print some letters
 Copy shapes including squares and crosses
From Birth to 3 Months
 Major developmental milestones at this age are centred on
exploring the basic senses and learning more about the body
and the environment. During this period, most infants begin
to:
 See objects more clearly within a distance of 13 inches
 Focus on moving objects, including the faces of caregivers
 Tell between sweet, salty, bitter and sour tastes
 Detect differences in pitch and volume
 See all colours in the human visual spectrum
 Respond to their environment with facial expressions
 Demonstrate anticipatory behaviours like rooting and
sucking at the site of a nipple or bottle
From 3 to 6 Months
 In early infancy, perceptual abilities are still
developing. From the age of three to six
months, infants begin to develop a stronger sense
of perception. At this age, most babies begin to:
 Recognize familiar faces
 Respond to the facial expressions of other
people
 Recognize and react to familiar sounds
 Begin to imitate facial expressions
From 6 to 9 Months
 To learn more about the mental processes of
infants, researchers have come up with a number of creative
tasks that reveal the inner workings of the baby brain. From
the age of six to nine months, researchers have found that
most infants begin to:
 Understand the differences between animate and
inanimate objects
 Tell the differences between pictures depicting different
numbers of objects
 Utilize the relative size of an object to determine how far
away it is
 Gaze longer at "impossible" things, such as an object
suspended in midair
From 9 to 12 Months
As infants become more physically adept, they are able to explore
the world around them in greater depth. Sitting up, crawling, and
walking are just a few of the physical milestones that allow babies to
gain a greater mental understanding of the world around them. As
they approach one year of age, most infants are able to:
 Understand the concept of object permanence, the idea that an
object continues to exist even though it cannot be seen
 Imitate gestures and some basic actions
 Respond with gestures and sounds
 Like looking at picture books
 Manipulate objects by turning them over, trying to put one
object into another, etc.
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From 1 Year to 2 Years
 After reaching a year of age, children's physical, social, and
cognitive development seems to grow by leaps and bounds.
Children at this age spend a tremendous amount of time
observing the actions of adults, so it is important for parents
and caregivers to set good examples for behaviour. Most
one-year-olds begin to:
 Understand and respond to words
 Identify objects that are similar
 Tell the difference between "Me" and "You"
 Imitate the actions and language of adults
 Can point out familiar objects and people in a picture
book
 Learn through exploration
From 2 to 3 Years
 At two years of age, children are becoming increasingly
independent. Since they are now able to better explore the
world, a great deal of learning during this stage is the result
of their own experiences. Most two-year-olds are able to:
 Sort objects by category
(i.e., animals, flowers, trees, etc.)
 Stack rings on a peg from largest to smallest
 Imitate more complex adult actions (playing
house, pretending to do laundry, etc.)
 Identify their own reflection in the mirror by name
 Respond to simple directions from parents and caregivers
 Name objects in a picture book
 Match objects with their uses
From 3 to 4 Years
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Children become increasingly capable of analyzing the world around
them in more complex ways. As they observe things, they begin to
sort and categorize them into different categories, often referred to
as schemas. Since children are becoming much more active in the
learning process, they also begin to pose questions about the world
around them. "Why?" becomes a very common question around this
age. At the age of three, most kids are able to:
Demonstrate awareness of the past and present
Actively seek answers to questions
Learn by observing and listening to instructions
Organize objects by size and shape
Understand how to group and match object according to colour
Have a longer attention span of around 5 to 15 minutes
Asks "why" questions to gain information
From 4 to 5 Years
 As they near school age, children become better at
using words, imitating adult actions, counting and
other basic activities that are important for school
preparedness. Most four-year-olds are able to:
 Rhyme
 Name and identify many colours
 Draw the shape of a person
 Count to five
 Tell where they live
 Draw pictures that they often name and describe
While physical developmental milestones are often some
of the easiest to observe, the early years of a child’s life are
also marked by other developmental milestones, including
social and emotional ones.
 In many cases, these achievements can be difficult or
even impossible to identify directly since they often
involve such things as increased self-awareness.
 Such skills can be difficult to see, but they are just as
important as the physical milestones, especially since
social and emotional skills become so important once a
child enters school.
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From Birth to 3 Months
 During the first three months, babies are actively
learning about themselves and the people around
them. Part of this skill-building involves:
 Looking at their own hands and sucking on fingers
 Looking at the part of their body that a parents or
caregiver is touching
 Understanding how the legs and arms are attached
 Realizing that they are separate beings from those
around them
 Learning to be comforted and soothed by adults
 Enjoying social stimulation and smiling at people
 Responding to touch
From 3 to 6 Months
 Social interaction becomes
increasingly important.
During this period of
development, most babies
begin to:
 Respond when their name is
called
 Smile
 Laugh
 Play peek-a-boo

From 6 to 9 Months
As babies get older, they may
begin to show a preference for
familiar people. Between the
ages of six to nine
months, most children can:
 Express a number of
emotions including
happiness, sadness, fear, and
anger
 Distinguish between familiar
family and friends and
strangers
 Show frustration when a toy
is taken away
 Respond to spoken words
and gestures
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From 9 to 12 Months
 As children become more social, they often begin
to mimic the actions of others. Self-regulation also
becomes increasingly important at the child
approaches one year of age. Most kids can:
 Hold a cup and drink with help
 Imitate simple actions
 Feed themselves small bites of food
 Express anxiety when separated from parents or
caregivers
From 1 to 2 Years
 From the age of one to two years, kids often spend more
time interacting with a wider range of people. They also start
to gain a greater sense of self-awareness. At this stage, most
can:
 Recognize their own image in the mirror
 Initiate play activities
 Play independently, often imitating adult actions
 Act pleased when the accomplish something
 Start trying to help, often by putting toys away
 Express negative emotions including anger and
frustration
 Become more self-assertive and may try to direct the
actions of others
From 2 to 3 Years











During the toddler years, kids become more and more
creative and confident. At two years old, most kids begin
to:
Become aware that they are a boy or girl
Begin to dress and undress themselves
Demonstrate personal preferences about
toys, food, and activities
Start saying "No" to adults
Enjoy watching and playing with other children
Become defensive about their own possessions
Use objects symbolically during play
Often have rapid changes in mood
From 3 to 4 Years
 Because three-year-olds are becoming increasingly
able to perform physical actions, their sense of
confidence and independence becomes more
pronounced at this age. During the third year, most
children begin to:
 Follow directions
 Perform some tasks with little or no assistance
 Share toys with other kids
 Make up games and ask other children to join in
 Begin engaging in pretend play
From 4 to 5 Years
 During the fourth year, children gain a greater awareness of
their own individuality. As their physical skills increase, they
are more capable of exploring their own abilities which can
help lead to great confidence and personal pride. At this
age, most kids begin to:
 Understand basic differences between good and bad
behaviour
 Develop friendships with other kids
 Compare themselves to other children and adults
 Become more aware of other people’s feelings
 Enjoy dramatic, imaginative play with other children
 Enjoy competitive games
Early childhood
 Also called "pre-school age," "exploratory age" and "toy age."
 When children attend preschool, they broaden their social
horizons and become more engaged with those around them.
 Impulses are channelled into fantasies, which leaves the task of
the caretaker to balance eagerness for pursuing
adventure, creativity and self-expression with the
development of responsibility.
 If caretakers are properly encouraging and consistently
disciplinary, children are more likely to develop positive selfesteem while becoming more responsible, and will follow
through on assigned activities.






As children grow their past experiences will shape
who they are, allow them to perceive the world in
their own way.
If not allowed to decide which activities to
perform, children may begin to feel guilt upon
contemplating taking initiative.
This negative association with independence will
lead them to let others make decisions in place of
them.







During a child's preschool and beginning school
years, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and
systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete
objects.
Operational thinking develops, which means actions are
reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.
Children go through the transition from the world at home
to that of school and peers.
Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the
skills to be a worker and a potential provider.
Children can now receive feedback from outsiders about
their accomplishments.






If children can discover pleasure in their
activities, including their intellectual
stimulation, most importantly in learning
reading, writing, and basic maths, they will develop
a sense of competence.
If they are not successful or cannot discover
pleasure in the process, they may develop a sense
of inferiority and feelings of inadequacy that may
haunt them throughout life.
This is when children think of themselves as
industrious or as inferior.
Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of
puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role.
 It is the period known for the formation of personal and
social identity (Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral
purpose ( William Damon).
 Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of
symbols related to abstract concepts and formal
reasoning.
 A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the
period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally
during adolescence. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January
1998)

Adolescence is divided into three parts:
 Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years (preteen),
 Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and
 Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years
 The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such
as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?"
 Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test
limits, become autonomous, and commit to an
identity, or sense of self.
 Different roles, behaviours and ideologies must be
tried out to select an identity.
 Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can
result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity.
Early adulthood
 Early adulthood, according to theorists such as Erik
Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused
on maintaining relationships.
 Examples include creating bond of intimacy, sustaining
friendships, and ultimately making a family.
 Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely
on the resolution of previous developmental stages.
 A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also
necessary for intimacy to develop.
 If this skill is not learned the alternative is
alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the
inability to depend on others.
A related framework for this part of the life
span is that of emerging adulthood.
 This concept suggests that people transition
after their teenage years into a period not
characterized as relationship building and an
overall sense of constancy with life, but with
years of living with parents, phases of selfdiscovery, and experimentation







Middle adulthood generally refers to the period
between ages 25 to 69.
During this period, middle-aged adults experience
a conflict between generativity and stagnation.
They may either feel a sense of contributing to
society, the next generation or their immediate
community or a sense of purposelessness.
Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in
muscular strength, reaction time, sensory
keenness, and cardiac output.






Women experience the menopause and a sharp
drop in the hormone oestrogen. Men experience
an equivalent endocrine system event to
menopause.
Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation
with physical and psychological effects that can be
similar to those seen in menopausal females.
As men age, lowered testosterone levels can
contribute to mood swings and a decline
in sperm count and sexual function and
responsiveness can be affected.





This stage generally refers to those aged over 70.
According to Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial
Development, old age is the stage in which
individuals assess the quality of their lives.
In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group
develop a feeling of integrity if deciding that
their lives were successful or a feeling of despair
if evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to
achieve goals.
Physically, older people experience a decline in
muscular strength, reaction
time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the
sense of smell.
 They also are more susceptible to illnesses such as
cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune
system.
 Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and
mobility have been shown to reduce disability among
mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.]
 Sexual expression depends in large part upon the
emotional and physical health of the individual. Many
older adults continue to be sexually active and
satisfied with their sexual activity









Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or
ailments such as Alzheimer's disease.
It is generally believed that crystallized
intelligence (knowledge and skills that are accumulated
over a lifetime) increases up to old age, while fluid
intelligence (Fluid intelligence to the ability to reason
quickly and to think abstractly) decreases with age.
Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases
with age depends on the measure and study.
Longitudinal studies show that speed declines.
Some cross-sectional studies suggest that intellect is stable
Parenting variables alone have typically
accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in
child outcomes.
Parenting styles


Authoritative Parenting is characterized as those parents
who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and
demand, and who rate low in negativity and conflict.
 These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly
restrictive. This method of parenting is associated with
more positive social and academic outcomes.










Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth
and responsiveness with high levels of demanding and firm
control.
These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their
children regularly.
In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive
outcomes.
The outcomes are more harmful for middle class boys than
girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for
white boys than Hispanic boys.
Furthermore, the negative effects of authoritarian parenting
among Asian Americans can be offset by positive peer support.
Finally, among African Americans, some elements of
authoritarian parenting such as firm control and physical
discipline do not serve as predictive factors for negative
outcomes
Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels
of responsiveness combined with low levels of
demand.
 These parents are lenient and do not necessarily
require mature behaviour.
 They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and
typically avoid confrontation.
 Compared to children raised using the authoritative
style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are
less assertive.
 Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less
cognitively competent than those children raised
under authoritative parenting styles







Rejecting or neglectful parenting is the final
category. This is characterized by low levels of
demanding and responsiveness.
These parents are typically disengaged in their
child’s lives, lacking structure in their parenting
styles and are unsupportive.
Children in this category are typically the least
competent of all the categories







Mother and father factors
Parenting roles in child development have typically
focused on the role of the mother.
Recent literature, however, has looked toward the father
as having an important role in child development.
Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that
children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from
substantial engagement with their father.
In particular, studies in the U.S. and New Zealand found
the presence of the natural father was the most significant
factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of
teenage pregnancy in girls.
Mother and father factors
 Another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is
actually essential in successful parenting, and that single
parents as well as homosexual couples can support
positive child outcomes.
 According to this set of research, children need at least
one consistently responsible adult with whom the child
can have a positive emotional connection.
 Having more than one of these figures contributes to a
higher likelihood of positive child outcomes.
Another parental factor often debated in terms of its
effects on child development is divorce.
 Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative
child outcomes.
 In fact, the majority of children from divorced families fall
into the normal range on measures of psychological and
cognitive functioning.
 A number of mediating factors play a role in determining
the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing
families with young children often face harsher
consequences in terms of demographic, social, and
economic changes than do families with older children.







Positive co-parenting after divorce is part of a
pattern associated with positive child coping, while
hostile parenting behaviours lead to a destructive
pattern leaving children at risk.
Additionally, direct parental relationship with the
child also affects the development of a child after a
divorce.
Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child
development after a divorce are maternal
warmth, positive father-child relationship, and
cooperation between parents.









Attachment theory
Attachment theory, originally developed by John
Bowlby, focuses on the importance of
open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships.
Attachment is described as a biological system or
powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the
survival of the infant.
A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward
caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and
psychological safety for the individual.
Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity.
Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange
Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base.
Attachment theory

 There are four types of attachment

styles:
 Secure
 Anxious-avoidant
 Anxious-resistant
 Disorganized.








Attachment theory
Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between
the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by
trust.
Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment
between an infant and a caregiver. This is
characterized by the infant's indifference toward the
caregiver.
Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment
between the infant and the caregiver characterized by
distress from the infant when separated and anger
when reunited.
Disorganized is an attachment style without a
consistent pattern of responses upon return of the
parent







Attachment theory
A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form
attachments.
Some babies are raised without the stimulation and
attention of a regular caregiver, or under conditions of
abuse or extreme neglect.
The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are
anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in
intellectual development.
Long-term effects include increased
aggression, clinging
behaviour, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and
an increased risk of depression as an adult.


The nature versus nurture debate is one of the
oldest issues in psychology. This debate within
psychology is concerned with the extent to which
particular aspects of behaviour are a product of
either inherited (i.e. genetic) or acquired (i.e.
learned) characteristics.



Nature is that which is inherited / genetic.
Nurture which refers to all environmental
influences after conception, i.e. experience.


Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology
Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology




It has long been known that certain physical
characteristics are biologically determined by
genetic inheritance. Colour of eyes, straight or
curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain
diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a
function of the genes we inherit.
Other physical characteristics, if not
determined, appear to be at least strongly
influenced by the genetic make-up of our
biological parents.




Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy
and vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast
cancer in women) are positively correlated
between genetically related individuals.
These facts have led many to speculate as to
whether psychological characteristics such as
behavioural tendencies, personality attributes and
mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are
even born.
Those who adopt an extreme heredity position are known
as nativists. Their basic assumption is that the
characteristics of the human species as a whole are a
product of evolution and that individual differences are due
to each person’s unique genetic code.
 Characteristics and differences that are not observable at
birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded as the
product of maturation. The classic example of the way this
affects our physical development are the bodily changes
that occur in early adolescence at puberty.
 Nativists also argue that maturation governs the emergence
of attachment in infancy, language acquisition and even
cognitive development as a whole.





At the other end of the spectrum are the
environmentalists – also known as empiricists (not
to be confused with the other empirical / scientific
approach). Their basic assumption is that at birth
the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate)
and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of
experience (e.g. behaviourism)
From this point of view psychological
characteristics and behavioural differences that
emerge through infancy and childhood are the
result of learning.




It is how you are brought up (nurture) that governs
the psychologically significant aspects of child
development and the concept of maturation
applies only to the biological.
So, when an infant forms an attachment it is
responding to the love and attention it has
received, language comes from imitating the
speech of others and cognitive development
depends on the degree of stimulation in the
environment and, more broadly, on the civilization
within which the child is reared.
Examples of an extreme nature positions in psychology
include Bowlby's (1969) theory of attachment, which views
the bond between mother and child as being an innate
process that ensures survival.
 Likewise, Chomsky (1965) proposed language is gained
through the use of an innate language acquisition device.
Another example of nature is Freud's theory of aggression as
being an innate drive (called thanatos).
 In contrast Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that
aggression is a learnt from the environment through
observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous bobo
doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
 Also Skinner (1957) believed that language is learnt from
other people via behaviour shaping techniques.





In practice hardly anyone today accepts either of
the extreme positions. There are simply too many
“facts” on both sides of the argument which are
inconsistent with an “all or nothing” view.
So instead of asking whether child development is
down to nature or nurture the question has been
reformulated as “How much?”


This question was first framed by Francis Galton in the late
19th century. Galton (himself a relative of Charles Darwin)
was convinced that intellectual ability was largely inherited
and that the tendency for “genius” to run in families was the
outcome of a natural superiority. This view has cropped up
time and again in the history of psychology and has
stimulated much of the research into intelligence testing
(particularly on separated twins and adopted children). A
modern proponent is the American psychologist Arthur
Jenson. Finding that the average I.Q. scores of black
Americans were significantly lower than whites he went on
to argue that genetic factors were mainly responsible – even
going so far as to suggest that intelligence is 80% inherited.
The storm of controversy that developed around Jenson’s
claims was not mainly due to logical and empirical
weaknesses in his argument. It was more to do with the
social and political implications that are often drawn from
research that claims to demonstrate natural inequalities
between social groups.
 Contemporary Views of Nature Versus Nurture
 Today, the majority of experts believe that behaviour and
development are influenced by both nature and nurture.
However, the issue still rages on in many areas such as in the
debate on the origins of homosexuality and influences
on intelligence. While few people take the extreme nativist
or empiricist approaches, researchers and experts still
debate the degree to which biology and environment
influence behaviour.












Baron, R., A., & Byrne, D. (2003). Social Psychology. London: Allyn & Bacon.
Beckett, C., & Taylor, H. (2010). Human Growth and Development. London: Sage.
Bekerian, D. A.,& Levey, A. B. (2011). Applied Psychology: Putting Theory into
Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bennett, P. (2011). Abnormal and Clinical Psychology: An Introductory Textbook.
Berkshire: Open University Press.
Carr, A. (2006). The Handbook of Child and Adolescent Clinical Psychology: A
Contextual Approach. Sussex: Routledge.
Carr, A, & McNulty, M. (2006). The Handbook of Adult Clinical Psychology: A
Evidence Based Practice Approach. Sussex: Routledge.
Coolican, H., Cassidy, T, Dunn, O., & Sharp, R. (2007). Applied Psychology. London:
Hodder & Stoughton.
O’Brien, E. (2008). Human Growth and Development. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan.
O’Brien, E. (2011). Psychology for Social Care: An Irish Perspective. Dublin: Gill &
Macmillan
Sugarman, L. (1995). Life-span Development: Concepts, Theories and Interventions.
London: Routledge.

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Human Growth & Development: Developmental Psychology. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lecturer of Psychology

  • 1. Theresa Lowry-Lehnen RGN, BSc (Hon’s) Nursing Science, PGCC, Dip Counselling, Dip Psychotherapy, BSc (Hon’s) Clinical Science, PGCE (QTS), H. Dip. Ed, MEd PhD student Health Psychology
  • 2.   Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology and the scientific study of how people grow and change over the course of a lifetime. Originally concerned with infants and children, it expanded to include adolescence, adult development, ageing, and the entire lifespan.
  • 3.         This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psychophysiological processes; cognitive development involving areas such as; problem solving, moral understanding conceptual understanding language acquisition social, personality emotional development self-concept and identity formation.
  • 4.     The scientific study of development is important not only to psychology, but also to sociology, education, and health care. The study of human development is important in a number of subjects, including biology, anthropology, sociology, education, histor y, and psychology. Most important, however, are the practical applications of studying human development. By better understanding how and why people change and grow, the knowledge can be applied to help people live up to their full potential.
  • 5.   There have been a number of important debates and issues throughout the history of developmental psychology. Some of the major questions posed by psychologists and researchers are centred on the relative contributions of genetics versus environment, the process through which development occurs, and the overall importance of early experiences versus that of later events.
  • 6.    The classic issue in child development research is the ‘Nature Vs. Nurture’ debate. Does genetic inheritance play a larger role in influencing development and behaviour, or does the environment have a stronger effect? Today, most psychologists recognize that both elements play an essential role, but the debate continues over many developmental questions about topics ranging from academic aptitude to sexual orientation.
  • 7. Early Experience vs. Later Experience  A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?
  • 8. Continuity vs. Discontinuity  A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity.  Does change occur smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?  Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:  Psychoanalytical theories  Learning theories  Cognitive theories
  • 9.   Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing an 8 stage theory of psychosocial development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.
  • 10.   Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behaviour. Important learning processes include classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. In each case, behaviour is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
  • 11. Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development     Proposed by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the theory of psychosexual development describes how personality develops during childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most controversial theories. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behaviour. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behaviour later in life.
  • 12. Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development    If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be overdependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
  • 15.   Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
  • 16.    When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. The formation of identity is something that begins in childhood and becomes particularly important during adolescence, but it is a process that continues throughout life. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to grow as we age.
  • 17.  In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviours and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
  • 18.    In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.
  • 22.     Learning Theories: Behaviourism During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviourism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviourists believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable behaviours in order to become a more scientific discipline. According to the behavioural perspective, all human behaviour can be described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviourists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement. Later, psychologist Albert Bandura rejected this narrow perspective and demonstrated the powerful effects of observational learning.
  • 23. Learning Theories: Behaviourism Classical Conditioning- A process of behaviour modification by which a subject comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response. (Stimulus ->Response) Operant conditioning- is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through these rewards and punishments, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.
  • 24. Social Child Development Theories    There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social development. He believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.
  • 25. Social Learning Theory  The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.  His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modelling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviours.
  • 26. Social Learning Theory Basic Social Learning Concepts  There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory.  First is the idea that people can learn through observation.  Second is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process.  Thirdly, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behaviour.
  • 27. Social Learning Theory Observational Learning  In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviours they have observed in other people.  Bandura et al (1963) carried out a classic study on observational learning or modelling- where young children were shown one of two films.  One film showed a female adult behaving in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll.  The other film showed a female adult behaving nonaggressively.  The children who had watched the adult behave aggressively were much more likely to attack the bobo doll than those who had watched the non-aggressive film.
  • 28. Social Learning Theory Observational Learning  Bandura (1965) carried out another study on aggressive behaviour.  One group of children were shown a film of an adult kicking and punching a bobo doll.  The 2nd group saw the same aggressive behaviour performed by the adult but this time the adult was rewarded by another adult for their behaviour.  A 3rd group saw the same aggressive behaviour, but this time the adult was punished by another adult, who warned them not to be so aggressive in the future.  Those children who had seen the model rewarded or seen the model neither rewarded or punished- behaved much more aggressively to the doll than those who had seen the model punished
  • 29. Social Learning Theory Observational Learning  Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:  A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour.  A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour.  A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in books, films, television programs, or online media.
  • 30. Social Learning Theory Intrinsic Reinforcement  Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behaviour.  He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.  This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories.  While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioural theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'
  • 31. Social Learning Theory Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour.  While behaviourists believe that learning leads to a permanent change in behaviour, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviours. The Modelling Process  Not all observed behaviours are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed.
  • 32. Social Learning Theory Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.  Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. 
  • 33. Social Learning Theory Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behaviour you observed. Further practice of the learned behaviour leads to improvement and skill advancement.  Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behaviour that has been modelled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. 
  • 34.   Social Learning Theory In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modelling appropriate behaviours. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.
  • 35.   Social Theories Lev Vygotsky- proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. His socio-cultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for the development of higher order functions.
  • 36. Cognitive Theories: Cognitive theories of development look at how thought processes and mental operations influence growth and change.  Jean Piaget created one of the most famous theories of cognitive development, suggesting that children are not just passive recipients of information.  Instead, he proposed that children are little scientists" who actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world.  Piaget’s theory of cognitive development accounts for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development. 
  • 37. .
  • 38.   Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Moral development is a major topic of interest in both psychology and education. One of the best known theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg who modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the development of moral reasoning. Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg's theory of moral development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
  • 39. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development  Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario. "The Heinz Dilemma” -Heinz Steals the Drug "In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.  The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).
  • 40. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development   Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development. Level 1. Pre-conventional Morality Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
  • 41. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development   Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that bestserved Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
  • 42. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development   Level 2. Conventional Morality Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
  • 43.   Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Level 3. Post-conventional Morality Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. Stage 6 - Universal Principles Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
  • 44. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:  Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behaviour? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions.  Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.  Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.
  • 48. Developmental milestones are abilities that most children are able to perform by a certain age. During the first year of a child’s life, physical milestones are centred on the infant learning to master selfmovement, hold objects and hand-to-mouth coordination.  From Birth to 3 Months  At this age, most babies begin to:  Use rooting, sucking and grasping reflexes  Slightly raise the head when lying on the stomach  Hold head up for a few seconds with support  Clench hands into fists  Tug and pull on their own hands  Repeat body movements
  • 49. From 3 to 6 Months  At this age, babies begin to develop greater agility and strength. They also begin to:  Roll over  Pull their bodies forward  Pull themselves up by grasping the edge of the crib  Reach for and grasp object  Bring object they are holding to their mouths  Shake and play with objects From 6 to 9 Months  During this time, children become increasingly mobile. They usually begin to:  Crawl  Grasp and pull object toward their own body  Transfer toys and objects from one hand to the other
  • 50. From 9 to 12 Months  In addition to the major milestones such as standing up and walking, children also begin to develop more advanced fine-motor skills. In this window of development, most babies are able to:  Sit up unaided  Stand without assistance  Walk without help  Pick up and throw objects  Roll a ball  Pick up objects between their thumb and one finger From 1 to 2 Years  Children become increasingly independent and this age and tasks requiring balance and hand-eye coordination begin to emerge. During this stage of development, most children are able to:  Pick things up while standing up  Walk backwards  Walk up and down stair without assistance  Move and sway to music  Colour or paint by moving the entire arm  Scribble with markers or crayons  Turn knobs and handles
  • 51. From 2 to 3 Years  Building on earlier skills, children become increasingly adept at activities that require coordination and speed. From one to three years of age, most kids begin to:  Run in a forward direction  Jump in one place  Kick a ball  Stand on one foot  Turn pages of a book  Draw a circle  Hold a crayon between the thumb and fingers From 3 to 4 Years  Physical abilities become more advanced as children develop better movement and balance skills. From age three to four, most kids begin to:  Ride a tricycle  Go down a slide without help  Throw and catch a ball  Pull and steer toys  Walk in a straight line  Build a tall towers with toy blocks  Manipulate clay into shapes
  • 52. From 4 to 5 Years  During this period of development, children become increasingly confident in their abilities. Most children begin to:  Jump on one foot  Walk backwards  Do somersaults  Cut paper with safety scissors  Print some letters  Copy shapes including squares and crosses
  • 53. From Birth to 3 Months  Major developmental milestones at this age are centred on exploring the basic senses and learning more about the body and the environment. During this period, most infants begin to:  See objects more clearly within a distance of 13 inches  Focus on moving objects, including the faces of caregivers  Tell between sweet, salty, bitter and sour tastes  Detect differences in pitch and volume  See all colours in the human visual spectrum  Respond to their environment with facial expressions  Demonstrate anticipatory behaviours like rooting and sucking at the site of a nipple or bottle
  • 54. From 3 to 6 Months  In early infancy, perceptual abilities are still developing. From the age of three to six months, infants begin to develop a stronger sense of perception. At this age, most babies begin to:  Recognize familiar faces  Respond to the facial expressions of other people  Recognize and react to familiar sounds  Begin to imitate facial expressions
  • 55. From 6 to 9 Months  To learn more about the mental processes of infants, researchers have come up with a number of creative tasks that reveal the inner workings of the baby brain. From the age of six to nine months, researchers have found that most infants begin to:  Understand the differences between animate and inanimate objects  Tell the differences between pictures depicting different numbers of objects  Utilize the relative size of an object to determine how far away it is  Gaze longer at "impossible" things, such as an object suspended in midair
  • 56. From 9 to 12 Months As infants become more physically adept, they are able to explore the world around them in greater depth. Sitting up, crawling, and walking are just a few of the physical milestones that allow babies to gain a greater mental understanding of the world around them. As they approach one year of age, most infants are able to:  Understand the concept of object permanence, the idea that an object continues to exist even though it cannot be seen  Imitate gestures and some basic actions  Respond with gestures and sounds  Like looking at picture books  Manipulate objects by turning them over, trying to put one object into another, etc. 
  • 57. From 1 Year to 2 Years  After reaching a year of age, children's physical, social, and cognitive development seems to grow by leaps and bounds. Children at this age spend a tremendous amount of time observing the actions of adults, so it is important for parents and caregivers to set good examples for behaviour. Most one-year-olds begin to:  Understand and respond to words  Identify objects that are similar  Tell the difference between "Me" and "You"  Imitate the actions and language of adults  Can point out familiar objects and people in a picture book  Learn through exploration
  • 58. From 2 to 3 Years  At two years of age, children are becoming increasingly independent. Since they are now able to better explore the world, a great deal of learning during this stage is the result of their own experiences. Most two-year-olds are able to:  Sort objects by category (i.e., animals, flowers, trees, etc.)  Stack rings on a peg from largest to smallest  Imitate more complex adult actions (playing house, pretending to do laundry, etc.)  Identify their own reflection in the mirror by name  Respond to simple directions from parents and caregivers  Name objects in a picture book  Match objects with their uses
  • 59. From 3 to 4 Years         Children become increasingly capable of analyzing the world around them in more complex ways. As they observe things, they begin to sort and categorize them into different categories, often referred to as schemas. Since children are becoming much more active in the learning process, they also begin to pose questions about the world around them. "Why?" becomes a very common question around this age. At the age of three, most kids are able to: Demonstrate awareness of the past and present Actively seek answers to questions Learn by observing and listening to instructions Organize objects by size and shape Understand how to group and match object according to colour Have a longer attention span of around 5 to 15 minutes Asks "why" questions to gain information
  • 60. From 4 to 5 Years  As they near school age, children become better at using words, imitating adult actions, counting and other basic activities that are important for school preparedness. Most four-year-olds are able to:  Rhyme  Name and identify many colours  Draw the shape of a person  Count to five  Tell where they live  Draw pictures that they often name and describe
  • 61. While physical developmental milestones are often some of the easiest to observe, the early years of a child’s life are also marked by other developmental milestones, including social and emotional ones.  In many cases, these achievements can be difficult or even impossible to identify directly since they often involve such things as increased self-awareness.  Such skills can be difficult to see, but they are just as important as the physical milestones, especially since social and emotional skills become so important once a child enters school. 
  • 62. From Birth to 3 Months  During the first three months, babies are actively learning about themselves and the people around them. Part of this skill-building involves:  Looking at their own hands and sucking on fingers  Looking at the part of their body that a parents or caregiver is touching  Understanding how the legs and arms are attached  Realizing that they are separate beings from those around them  Learning to be comforted and soothed by adults  Enjoying social stimulation and smiling at people  Responding to touch
  • 63. From 3 to 6 Months  Social interaction becomes increasingly important. During this period of development, most babies begin to:  Respond when their name is called  Smile  Laugh  Play peek-a-boo From 6 to 9 Months As babies get older, they may begin to show a preference for familiar people. Between the ages of six to nine months, most children can:  Express a number of emotions including happiness, sadness, fear, and anger  Distinguish between familiar family and friends and strangers  Show frustration when a toy is taken away  Respond to spoken words and gestures  
  • 64. From 9 to 12 Months  As children become more social, they often begin to mimic the actions of others. Self-regulation also becomes increasingly important at the child approaches one year of age. Most kids can:  Hold a cup and drink with help  Imitate simple actions  Feed themselves small bites of food  Express anxiety when separated from parents or caregivers
  • 65. From 1 to 2 Years  From the age of one to two years, kids often spend more time interacting with a wider range of people. They also start to gain a greater sense of self-awareness. At this stage, most can:  Recognize their own image in the mirror  Initiate play activities  Play independently, often imitating adult actions  Act pleased when the accomplish something  Start trying to help, often by putting toys away  Express negative emotions including anger and frustration  Become more self-assertive and may try to direct the actions of others
  • 66. From 2 to 3 Years          During the toddler years, kids become more and more creative and confident. At two years old, most kids begin to: Become aware that they are a boy or girl Begin to dress and undress themselves Demonstrate personal preferences about toys, food, and activities Start saying "No" to adults Enjoy watching and playing with other children Become defensive about their own possessions Use objects symbolically during play Often have rapid changes in mood
  • 67. From 3 to 4 Years  Because three-year-olds are becoming increasingly able to perform physical actions, their sense of confidence and independence becomes more pronounced at this age. During the third year, most children begin to:  Follow directions  Perform some tasks with little or no assistance  Share toys with other kids  Make up games and ask other children to join in  Begin engaging in pretend play
  • 68. From 4 to 5 Years  During the fourth year, children gain a greater awareness of their own individuality. As their physical skills increase, they are more capable of exploring their own abilities which can help lead to great confidence and personal pride. At this age, most kids begin to:  Understand basic differences between good and bad behaviour  Develop friendships with other kids  Compare themselves to other children and adults  Become more aware of other people’s feelings  Enjoy dramatic, imaginative play with other children  Enjoy competitive games
  • 69. Early childhood  Also called "pre-school age," "exploratory age" and "toy age."  When children attend preschool, they broaden their social horizons and become more engaged with those around them.  Impulses are channelled into fantasies, which leaves the task of the caretaker to balance eagerness for pursuing adventure, creativity and self-expression with the development of responsibility.  If caretakers are properly encouraging and consistently disciplinary, children are more likely to develop positive selfesteem while becoming more responsible, and will follow through on assigned activities.
  • 70.    As children grow their past experiences will shape who they are, allow them to perceive the world in their own way. If not allowed to decide which activities to perform, children may begin to feel guilt upon contemplating taking initiative. This negative association with independence will lead them to let others make decisions in place of them.
  • 71.      During a child's preschool and beginning school years, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes. Children go through the transition from the world at home to that of school and peers. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. Children can now receive feedback from outsiders about their accomplishments.
  • 72.    If children can discover pleasure in their activities, including their intellectual stimulation, most importantly in learning reading, writing, and basic maths, they will develop a sense of competence. If they are not successful or cannot discover pleasure in the process, they may develop a sense of inferiority and feelings of inadequacy that may haunt them throughout life. This is when children think of themselves as industrious or as inferior.
  • 73. Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role.  It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose ( William Damon).  Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning.  A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998) 
  • 74. Adolescence is divided into three parts:  Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years (preteen),  Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and  Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years  The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?"  Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self.  Different roles, behaviours and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity.  Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity.
  • 75. Early adulthood  Early adulthood, according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships.  Examples include creating bond of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and ultimately making a family.  Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages.  A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop.  If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.
  • 76. A related framework for this part of the life span is that of emerging adulthood.  This concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of selfdiscovery, and experimentation 
  • 77.     Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 25 to 69. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to society, the next generation or their immediate community or a sense of purposelessness. Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output.
  • 78.    Women experience the menopause and a sharp drop in the hormone oestrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age, lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count and sexual function and responsiveness can be affected.
  • 79.    This stage generally refers to those aged over 70. According to Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a feeling of integrity if deciding that their lives were successful or a feeling of despair if evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to achieve goals.
  • 80. Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell.  They also are more susceptible to illnesses such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system.  Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.]  Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity 
  • 81.      Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence (knowledge and skills that are accumulated over a lifetime) increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence (Fluid intelligence to the ability to reason quickly and to think abstractly) decreases with age. Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study. Longitudinal studies show that speed declines. Some cross-sectional studies suggest that intellect is stable
  • 82. Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes. Parenting styles  Authoritative Parenting is characterized as those parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demand, and who rate low in negativity and conflict.  These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive. This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. 
  • 83.       Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demanding and firm control. These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their children regularly. In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. The outcomes are more harmful for middle class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys. Furthermore, the negative effects of authoritarian parenting among Asian Americans can be offset by positive peer support. Finally, among African Americans, some elements of authoritarian parenting such as firm control and physical discipline do not serve as predictive factors for negative outcomes
  • 84. Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demand.  These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behaviour.  They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation.  Compared to children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive.  Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles 
  • 85.    Rejecting or neglectful parenting is the final category. This is characterized by low levels of demanding and responsiveness. These parents are typically disengaged in their child’s lives, lacking structure in their parenting styles and are unsupportive. Children in this category are typically the least competent of all the categories
  • 86.     Mother and father factors Parenting roles in child development have typically focused on the role of the mother. Recent literature, however, has looked toward the father as having an important role in child development. Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father. In particular, studies in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls.
  • 87. Mother and father factors  Another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes.  According to this set of research, children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection.  Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher likelihood of positive child outcomes.
  • 88. Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce.  Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes.  In fact, the majority of children from divorced families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning.  A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children. 
  • 89.    Positive co-parenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviours lead to a destructive pattern leaving children at risk. Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive father-child relationship, and cooperation between parents.
  • 90.      Attachment theory Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base.
  • 91. Attachment theory  There are four types of attachment styles:  Secure  Anxious-avoidant  Anxious-resistant  Disorganized.
  • 92.     Attachment theory Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent
  • 93.     Attachment theory A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behaviour, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult.
  • 94.  The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. This debate within psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited (i.e. genetic) or acquired (i.e. learned) characteristics.  Nature is that which is inherited / genetic. Nurture which refers to all environmental influences after conception, i.e. experience. 
  • 98.   It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined by genetic inheritance. Colour of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit. Other physical characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological parents.
  • 99.   Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlated between genetically related individuals. These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological characteristics such as behavioural tendencies, personality attributes and mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born.
  • 100. Those who adopt an extreme heredity position are known as nativists. Their basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of evolution and that individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic code.  Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded as the product of maturation. The classic example of the way this affects our physical development are the bodily changes that occur in early adolescence at puberty.  Nativists also argue that maturation governs the emergence of attachment in infancy, language acquisition and even cognitive development as a whole. 
  • 101.   At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists – also known as empiricists (not to be confused with the other empirical / scientific approach). Their basic assumption is that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g. behaviourism) From this point of view psychological characteristics and behavioural differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning.
  • 102.   It is how you are brought up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant aspects of child development and the concept of maturation applies only to the biological. So, when an infant forms an attachment it is responding to the love and attention it has received, language comes from imitating the speech of others and cognitive development depends on the degree of stimulation in the environment and, more broadly, on the civilization within which the child is reared.
  • 103. Examples of an extreme nature positions in psychology include Bowlby's (1969) theory of attachment, which views the bond between mother and child as being an innate process that ensures survival.  Likewise, Chomsky (1965) proposed language is gained through the use of an innate language acquisition device. Another example of nature is Freud's theory of aggression as being an innate drive (called thanatos).  In contrast Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is a learnt from the environment through observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).  Also Skinner (1957) believed that language is learnt from other people via behaviour shaping techniques. 
  • 104.   In practice hardly anyone today accepts either of the extreme positions. There are simply too many “facts” on both sides of the argument which are inconsistent with an “all or nothing” view. So instead of asking whether child development is down to nature or nurture the question has been reformulated as “How much?”
  • 105.  This question was first framed by Francis Galton in the late 19th century. Galton (himself a relative of Charles Darwin) was convinced that intellectual ability was largely inherited and that the tendency for “genius” to run in families was the outcome of a natural superiority. This view has cropped up time and again in the history of psychology and has stimulated much of the research into intelligence testing (particularly on separated twins and adopted children). A modern proponent is the American psychologist Arthur Jenson. Finding that the average I.Q. scores of black Americans were significantly lower than whites he went on to argue that genetic factors were mainly responsible – even going so far as to suggest that intelligence is 80% inherited.
  • 106. The storm of controversy that developed around Jenson’s claims was not mainly due to logical and empirical weaknesses in his argument. It was more to do with the social and political implications that are often drawn from research that claims to demonstrate natural inequalities between social groups.  Contemporary Views of Nature Versus Nurture  Today, the majority of experts believe that behaviour and development are influenced by both nature and nurture. However, the issue still rages on in many areas such as in the debate on the origins of homosexuality and influences on intelligence. While few people take the extreme nativist or empiricist approaches, researchers and experts still debate the degree to which biology and environment influence behaviour. 
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