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IV Clay Minerals and Soil Structure
Outline ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
1. Clay Minerals
1.1 Origin of Clay Minerals ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
1.1 Origin of Clay Minerals (Cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
1.2 Basic Unit-Silica Tetrahedra  Hexagonal hole 1 Si 4 O (Si 2 O 10 ) -4 Replace four Oxygen with hydroxyls or combine with positive union (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) Tetrahedron Plural: Tetrahedra
1.2 Basic Unit-Octahedral Sheet  Gibbsite sheet: Al 3+ Al 2 (OH) 6 , 2/3 cationic spaces are filled One OH is surrounded by  2 Al :  Di octahedral sheet Brucite sheet: Mg 2+ Mg 3 (OH) 6 , all cationic spaces are filled One OH is surrounded by  3 Mg :  Tri octahedral sheet Different cations 1  Cation 6  O or OH (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
1.2 Basic Unit-Summary Mitchell, 1993
1.3 Synthesis Noncrystalline clay -allophane Mitchell, 1993
1.4  1:1  Minerals-Kaolinite  Basal spacing is 7.2  Å ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],layer Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993) 17   m
1.4 1:1 Minerals-Halloysite ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993) 2   m
1.5 2:1 Minerals-Montmorillonite n ·H 2 O+cations 5   m ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
1.5 2:1 Minerals-Illite  (mica-like minerals) potassium ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],7.5   m Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993) K
1.5 2:1 Minerals-Vermiculite  (micalike minerals) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Illite Vermiculite Mitchell, 1993
1.6 2:1:1 Minerals-Chlorite  The basal spacing is fixed at  14 Å. Gibbsite or brucite
1.7 Chain Structure Clay Minerals  ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Attapulgite 4.7   m Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993)
1.8 Mixed Layer Clays ,[object Object],[object Object],(Mitchell, 1993)
1.9 Noncrystalline Clay Materials ,[object Object],[object Object]
2. Identification of Clay Minerals
2.1 X-ray diffraction ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Mitchell, 1993
2.2 Differential Thermal Analysis  (DTA) For example: Quartz changes from the    to    form at 573  º C and an endothermic peak can be observed. ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object], T Temperature (100  º C)
2.2 DTA  (Cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object],T Time t T Time t Crystallize Melt Endothermic reactions take up heat from surroundings and therefore the temperature T decreases. Exothermic reactions liberate heat to surroundings and  therefore the temperature T increases .  T= the temperature of the sample – the temperature of the thermally inert substance.
2.3 Other Methods ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
2.3 Other Methods (Cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
3. Specific Surface (S s )
3.1 Definition Example: Surface related forces: van der Waals forces, capillary forces, etc. S s  is inversely proportional to the particle size Preferred
3.2 Typical Values Montmorillonite Illite Kaolinite 50-120 m 2 /gm  (external surface) 700-840 m 2 /gm  (including the interlayer surface) 65-100 m 2 /gm 10-20 m 2 /gm Interlayer surface
4. Interaction of Water and Clay Minerals
4.1 Origins of Charge Deficiencies ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies  (Cont.) ,[object Object],The broken edge can be positively or negatively charged.
4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies  (Cont.) 3 . Proton equilibria (pH-dependent charges) Kaolinite particles are positively charged on their edges when in a low pH environment, but negatively charged in a high pH (basic) environment. M M M O O - O H + H H M: metal
4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies  (Cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object]
4.3 “Charged” Clay Particles  ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Kaolinite and negative gold sol (van Olphen, 1991) Dry condition - or + - or + Cation
4.4 Polar Water Molecules Structure Polar molecule H(+) H(+) O(-) Hydrogen bond Salts in aqueous solution hydration
Question  Why can we use the microwave oven to cook food?
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction Adsorbed layers 3  monolayers 1. Hydrogen bond Kaolinite Oxygen Hydroxyl Clay Surfaces Free water  Bulk water  The water molecule “locked” in the adsorbed layers  has different properties compared to that of the bulk water due to the strong attraction from the surface. O OH H O H O H O H H
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.) 2. Ion hydration The water molecules wedge into the interlayer after adding water Dry condition (Interlayer) Clay layers cation The cations are fully hydrated, which results in repulsive forces and expanding clay layers (hydration energy). Na +   crystal radius: 0.095 nm radius of hydrated ion: 0.358 nm
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.) The concentration of cations is higher in the interlayers (A) compared with  that in the solution (B) due to negatively charged surfaces. Because of this  concentration difference, water molecules tend to diffuse toward the interlayer in an attempt to equalize concentration. 3. Osmotic pressure From Oxtoby et al., 1994 A B
4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.) Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and sodium kaolinite Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
5. Interaction of Clay Particles  (or Layers) Interlayer Interparticle Layer Particle
5.1 Diffuse Double Layer Clay particle with negatively charged surface x Distance x Concentration Exponential decay Cations Anions - - + + - - - - -
5.2 Interaction Forces Net force between clay particles (or interlayers) = van der Waals attraction + Double layer repulsion (overlapping of the double layer)+ Coulombian attraction (between the positive edge and  negative face) DLVO forces
5.3 Thickness of Double Layer Thickness of double layer K K     repulsion force     n 0    K     repulsion force   v      K     repulsion force   T     K     repulsion force   (?)    decreases with increasing temperature
5.4 Interaction of Clay Particles Increasing Electrolyte concentration n 0 Ion valence  v Temperature T (?) Decreasing Permittivity   Size of hydration ion pH Anion adsorption ,[object Object],[object Object],Flocculated fabric Edge-to-face (EF):   positively charged edges and negatively charged surfaces (more common) Edge-to-edge (EE) Aggregated fabric Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted FF Dispersed fabric The net interparticle force between surfaces is repulsive
5.4 Interaction of Clay Particles (Cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Clay Particle The total required number of cations is 10 + + - - - - - - - - -
5.5 Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals Lambe and Whitman, 1979 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],The thickness of double layer increases with decreasing cation valence.
5.6 Cation Replaceability ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],+4CaCl 2     +8NaCl   Ca Ca Ca Ca (Lambe and Whitman, 1979)   Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na
5.6 Cation Replaceability (Cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],(Data compiled from Israelachvili, 1991) Cations Non-hydrated radius (Å) Hydrated radius (Å) Li + 0.68 3.8 Na + 0.95 3.6 K + 1.33 3.3 Cs + 1.69 3.3 Be 2+ 0.31 4.6 Mg 2+ 0.65 4.3 Ca 2+ 0.99 4.1 Ba 2+ 1.35   Al 3+ 0.5 4.8 Fe 3+ 0.6  
5.7 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)  ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
5.7 Cation Exchange Capacity (cec) ,[object Object],[object Object]
5.8 Swelling Potential Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be around the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the potentially swelling clay  (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)   Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
5.9 Engineering Applications ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Soil particle The swelling clays can form a so-called “filter cake” and enable soil layers to become relatively impermeable. Earth pressure+ ground water pressure Pressure profile of slurry Trench Bentonite  or Polymer Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral in bentonite Xanthakos, 1991
5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.) Xanthakos, 1991
5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.) Xanthakos, 1991
5.9 Engineering Applications ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
6. Soil Structure and Fabric
6. Soil Structure and Fabric ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],*Fabric and structure are used interchangeably sometimes.
7. Soil Fabric-Natural Soil (fine-grained soils)
7.1  Microfabric Features in Natural Soils ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
7.1 Elementary Particles Individual clay platelet interaction Individual silt or sand particle interaction Clay platelet group interaction Clothed silt or sand particle interaction Particle discernible Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
7.2 Particle Assemblages Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
7.3 Pore Space Types Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Mitchell, 1993)
8. Soil Fabric-Clay Soils
8.1 Terminology ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Face (F) Edge (E) Clay Particle van Olphen, 1991 (from Mitchell, 1993)
8.2 Particle Associations Dispersed and deflocculated Aggregated but deflocculated Edge-to-face flocculated and aggregated Edge-to-edge flocculated and aggregated Edge-to-face  and edge to edge flocculated and aggregated Edge-to-edge flocculated but dispersed Edge-to-face flocculated but dispersed van Olphen, 1991
8.3 Summary Flocculated fabric Dispersed fabric Edge-to-face (EF):   positively charged edges and negatively charged surfaces (more common) Edge-to-edge (EE) The net interparticle force between surfaces is repulsive Aggregated fabric Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted Face-to-Face (FF)
8.4 Fabric of Natural Clay Soils  ,[object Object],[object Object]
8.4 Fabric of Natural Clay Soils (Cont.) Enlargement Domains and clusters with micropores ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Yong and Sheeran (1973) (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
8.4 Fabric of Natural Clay Soils (cont.) ,[object Object],[object Object],(From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) Clay particle Water
9. Soil Fabrics-Granular Soils
9.1 Packing Dense packing Loose packing Honeycombed fabric ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
9.1 Packing (Cont.)-Sand Boil Loose sand Kramer, 1996
9.1 Packing (Cont.) ,[object Object],Help!
9.2 Load Transfer Loading The black particles carry most of load. The remaining particles prevent the buckling of the load-carrying chains  (From Santamarina et al., 2001) .
9.3 The Relative Density (D r ) ,[object Object],(Lambe and Whitman, 1979) The relative density of a natural soil deposit very strongly affects its engineering behavior. Consequently, it is important to conduct laboratory tests on samples of the sand at the same relative density as in the field ( from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). (compaction)
Derivation
9.3 The Relative Density (Dr) (Cont.) “ The relative density (or void ratio) alone is not sufficient to characterize the engineering properties of granular soils”  (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) . Two soils with the same relative density (or void ratio) may contain very different pore sizes. That is, the pore size distribution probably is a better parameter to correlate with the engineering properties  (Santamarina et al., 2001) . 2 1 : Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
10. Loess
Loess ,[object Object],[object Object],Why? The interaction between water and salts and clay Capillary force Cementation Capillary force cementation
11. Suggested Homework ,[object Object],[object Object]
12. References ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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Clay Minerals And Soil Structure

  • 1. IV Clay Minerals and Soil Structure
  • 2.
  • 4.
  • 5.
  • 6. 1.2 Basic Unit-Silica Tetrahedra Hexagonal hole 1 Si 4 O (Si 2 O 10 ) -4 Replace four Oxygen with hydroxyls or combine with positive union (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) Tetrahedron Plural: Tetrahedra
  • 7. 1.2 Basic Unit-Octahedral Sheet Gibbsite sheet: Al 3+ Al 2 (OH) 6 , 2/3 cationic spaces are filled One OH is surrounded by 2 Al : Di octahedral sheet Brucite sheet: Mg 2+ Mg 3 (OH) 6 , all cationic spaces are filled One OH is surrounded by 3 Mg : Tri octahedral sheet Different cations 1 Cation 6 O or OH (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
  • 8. 1.2 Basic Unit-Summary Mitchell, 1993
  • 9. 1.3 Synthesis Noncrystalline clay -allophane Mitchell, 1993
  • 10.
  • 11.
  • 12.
  • 13.
  • 14.
  • 15. 1.6 2:1:1 Minerals-Chlorite The basal spacing is fixed at 14 Å. Gibbsite or brucite
  • 16.
  • 17.
  • 18.
  • 19. 2. Identification of Clay Minerals
  • 20.
  • 21.
  • 22.
  • 23.
  • 24.
  • 26. 3.1 Definition Example: Surface related forces: van der Waals forces, capillary forces, etc. S s is inversely proportional to the particle size Preferred
  • 27. 3.2 Typical Values Montmorillonite Illite Kaolinite 50-120 m 2 /gm (external surface) 700-840 m 2 /gm (including the interlayer surface) 65-100 m 2 /gm 10-20 m 2 /gm Interlayer surface
  • 28. 4. Interaction of Water and Clay Minerals
  • 29.
  • 30.
  • 31. 4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies (Cont.) 3 . Proton equilibria (pH-dependent charges) Kaolinite particles are positively charged on their edges when in a low pH environment, but negatively charged in a high pH (basic) environment. M M M O O - O H + H H M: metal
  • 32.
  • 33.
  • 34. 4.4 Polar Water Molecules Structure Polar molecule H(+) H(+) O(-) Hydrogen bond Salts in aqueous solution hydration
  • 35. Question Why can we use the microwave oven to cook food?
  • 36. 4.5 Clay-Water Interaction Adsorbed layers 3 monolayers 1. Hydrogen bond Kaolinite Oxygen Hydroxyl Clay Surfaces Free water Bulk water The water molecule “locked” in the adsorbed layers has different properties compared to that of the bulk water due to the strong attraction from the surface. O OH H O H O H O H H
  • 37. 4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.) 2. Ion hydration The water molecules wedge into the interlayer after adding water Dry condition (Interlayer) Clay layers cation The cations are fully hydrated, which results in repulsive forces and expanding clay layers (hydration energy). Na + crystal radius: 0.095 nm radius of hydrated ion: 0.358 nm
  • 38. 4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.) The concentration of cations is higher in the interlayers (A) compared with that in the solution (B) due to negatively charged surfaces. Because of this concentration difference, water molecules tend to diffuse toward the interlayer in an attempt to equalize concentration. 3. Osmotic pressure From Oxtoby et al., 1994 A B
  • 39. 4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.) Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and sodium kaolinite Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
  • 40. 5. Interaction of Clay Particles (or Layers) Interlayer Interparticle Layer Particle
  • 41. 5.1 Diffuse Double Layer Clay particle with negatively charged surface x Distance x Concentration Exponential decay Cations Anions - - + + - - - - -
  • 42. 5.2 Interaction Forces Net force between clay particles (or interlayers) = van der Waals attraction + Double layer repulsion (overlapping of the double layer)+ Coulombian attraction (between the positive edge and negative face) DLVO forces
  • 43. 5.3 Thickness of Double Layer Thickness of double layer K K  repulsion force  n 0  K  repulsion force  v  K  repulsion force  T  K  repulsion force  (?)  decreases with increasing temperature
  • 44.
  • 45.
  • 46.
  • 47.
  • 48.
  • 49.
  • 50.
  • 51. 5.8 Swelling Potential Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be around the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the potentially swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
  • 52.
  • 53. 5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.) Xanthakos, 1991
  • 54. 5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.) Xanthakos, 1991
  • 55.
  • 56. 6. Soil Structure and Fabric
  • 57.
  • 58. 7. Soil Fabric-Natural Soil (fine-grained soils)
  • 59.
  • 60. 7.1 Elementary Particles Individual clay platelet interaction Individual silt or sand particle interaction Clay platelet group interaction Clothed silt or sand particle interaction Particle discernible Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
  • 61. 7.2 Particle Assemblages Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
  • 62. 7.3 Pore Space Types Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Mitchell, 1993)
  • 64.
  • 65. 8.2 Particle Associations Dispersed and deflocculated Aggregated but deflocculated Edge-to-face flocculated and aggregated Edge-to-edge flocculated and aggregated Edge-to-face and edge to edge flocculated and aggregated Edge-to-edge flocculated but dispersed Edge-to-face flocculated but dispersed van Olphen, 1991
  • 66. 8.3 Summary Flocculated fabric Dispersed fabric Edge-to-face (EF): positively charged edges and negatively charged surfaces (more common) Edge-to-edge (EE) The net interparticle force between surfaces is repulsive Aggregated fabric Face-to-Face (FF) Shifted Face-to-Face (FF)
  • 67.
  • 68.
  • 69.
  • 71.
  • 72. 9.1 Packing (Cont.)-Sand Boil Loose sand Kramer, 1996
  • 73.
  • 74. 9.2 Load Transfer Loading The black particles carry most of load. The remaining particles prevent the buckling of the load-carrying chains (From Santamarina et al., 2001) .
  • 75.
  • 77. 9.3 The Relative Density (Dr) (Cont.) “ The relative density (or void ratio) alone is not sufficient to characterize the engineering properties of granular soils” (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) . Two soils with the same relative density (or void ratio) may contain very different pore sizes. That is, the pore size distribution probably is a better parameter to correlate with the engineering properties (Santamarina et al., 2001) . 2 1 : Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
  • 79.
  • 80.
  • 81.