1. SessionA9
Paper #5210
University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering
2015-04-03
1
HYDROCRACKING OF VACUUM RESIDUE AND THE USE OF RED
MUD CATALYSTS
Charles Kritkausky (cjk71@pitt.edu, Bursic 2:00), Alex Connor (ajc162@pitt.edu, Vidic 2:00)
Abstract—This paper analyzes the implementation of ferrous
bauxite compounds,more commonly known as‘red mud,’ as a
catalyst in the hydrocracking of vacuum residue to improve
hydrocarbon yields and decrease the production of
environmental waste and coke. First, an overview of the oil
refining process, with a focus on the specific technologies
associated with hydrocracking,and the obstaclesprovided by
coking, as a detriment to the reactor and waste product, will
be presented. This paper will then investigate the use of red
mud asa catalyst forthe hydrocracking reactionand its ability
to reduce coke formation and increase the recovery of light
crude oil fractions. The catalytic use of red mud will be
explained, including proposed methods of improvement, such
asvarying the red mud composition by the Pratt-Christoverson
method and phosphoric activation and the introduction of
macro-mesoporosity to the catalyst. The paper will conclude
with an investigation of red mud within the definition of
sustainability. The use of red mud as a catalyst can improve
the efficiency with which we obtain energy and reduce the
production of harmful waste products by providing access to
the previously unattainable vacuum residue component of
crude oil, enhancing the sustainability of petroleum as an
energy source.
Key Words—activation, catalysts, hydrocracking, macro-
mesoporosity, oil refining, red mud, vacuum residue
OIL REFINEMENT: AN OVERVIEW
Petroleum is at the forefront of the resources that powerour
modern society. In the United States, it accounts for over half
of all energy sources used. Annually, the world consumes an
astounding 30 billion barrels of oil, with the United States
accounting for approximately a fifth of this consumption [1].
Furthermore, the industry forpetroleum has neverbeen bigger,
with the world production of refined petroleum products
doubling over the past forty years [1]. With the demand for
petroleum at an all-time high, there has never been more of a
need for efficient ways to refine crude oil into usable fuels, in
order to ensure a sustainable society. In this context, a
sustainable society is one with ample access to energy to meet
its needs.
Process Overview
The process of crude oil refinement, although somewhat
unique to every refinery, can be broken down into several
fundamental steps. Crude oil refinement begins with a series
of exploration projects that search to identify where there may
be substantial crude oil deposits [1]. Once petroleum is
discovered,drilling is required to harness oil from the deposit.
The next step after extraction is the first ‘refinement’ step in
the process. In the case of an offshore rig, the crude oil is sent
via a piping systemto a nearby on-shore facility. However, it
is not uncommon to see offshore rigs that have this initial
processing equipment. At this initial processing facility, the
crude oil is separated from water and sediments and then is
loaded onto a tanker or truck in order to be transported to the
main refinery [1].
The next step in the refinement process is distillation,
which is usually referred to as atmospheric distillation [1].
During the distillation process,the crude oil is heated to exploit
the property that hydrocarbons of different molecular weights
vaporize at different temperature. The heavier molecules
exhibit higher boiling points because it takes a much larger
amount of energy to break the intermolecular forces of
attraction between the particles; it is also hard for these large
particles to move around freely due to large steric hindrances
[2]. The lightest and medium weight hydrocarbons (such as
the ones that comprise gasoline) vaporize and rise high into
distillation tower before cooling and condensing. It is for this
reason that distillation towers are extremely tall and contain an
abundance of sensitive tubing and complex piping. Heavier
hydrocarbons retain their liquid state at a much higher
temperature than lighter ones and as a result they condense at
a lower point in the distillation tower. The hydrocarbons can
then be collected based on their molecular weights [2].
Limitations Provided by Heavy Crude Fractions
However, distillation of the heavier components of crude
oil has its complications and limitations, such as the
phenomenon of thermal cracking. Figure 1 gives a visual
representation of this molecular process, in which a large
hydrocarbon is broken into reactive radicals. Crude oil cannot
be heated above 370 oC because this will cause the heavier
components ofthe mixture to undergo thermal cracking, or the
homolytic cleavage of these heavy hydrocarbons. During
homolytic cleavage, a carbon-carbon bond of the respective
hydrocarbon is broken and each of the two new compounds
takes one of the two formerly bonding electrons with it. This
single un-paired electron causes the two newly formed radicals
to be extremely reactive [3]. One of the main reaction
pathways that these radicals take consists of rapidly reacting
with each other to form petroleum coke.
Petroleum coke is a diverse material that can be hard or
soft, and take the form of anything from quite large spongy
chunks to small round marble like pieces. This porous solid

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clogs sensitive tubing and piping which are essential to the
collection of the separated hydrocarbons. Enough coke
clogging will render the furnace useless until the excess coke
is burned off. This is a time consuming process that renders
the furnace unable to refine crude oil until completed. This
can greatly hinder the efficiency of refineries ultimately
leading to a smaller supply and higher prices of refined oil. It
is for these reasons that refineries seek to keep production of
coke as low as possible [3]. The ability to reduce the coking
within the reactor is an example of cost sustainability, and
makes the process ofrefining itself more sustainable as a result
by increasing production and decreasing maintenance time and
costs.
FIGURE 1 [3]
A visual depiction of the thermal cracking reaction
In order to combat this coke formation, further distillation
of the crude oil is carried out undernear vacuumconditions in
order to lower the vaporization temperature of the remaining
hydrocarbons [1]. Accordingly, this process is called vacuum
distillation. Vacuum distilling towers can generate pressures
as low as 10-40 Torr, or approximately 3% of atmospheric
pressure [1]. Although the low pressure environment does
lower the boiling temperature of the hydrocarbons, some coke
formation is inevitable [3]. This coke formation causes a
residual mixture of large and heavy hydrocarbons to remain,
known as vacuum residue. Although unrefined, this vacuum
residue still contains an abundance of compounds that can
potentially be converted into useful fuels [4].
When the crude oil has been successfully separated by
weight into different components, several different processes
take place next depending on the size of the hydrocarbons to
achieve further refinement of the various components. The
lighter hydrocarbons are immediately gathered and refined
into fuels such as gasoline,kerosene, and jet fuel. The vacuum
residue, however, must undergo a different process before it
can be converted into useful fuel, the foremost step of this
sequence being hydrocracking [3].
HYDROCRACKING
The Process
Incidentally, the same chemical pathway that causes the
formation of coke also converts vacuum residue into usable
fuels. Hydrocracking involves heating the vacuumresidue so
that it begins to split homolytically into radicals. However,
unlike when homolytic cleavage occurs in the distillation
furnace, radical formation in the hydrocracker takes place in
the presence oflarge amounts of pure hydrogen gas [5]. Figure
2 provides an example of this reaction, depicting the splitting
of n-heptane into isopentane and ethane [2]. In accordance
with the information presented previously, these radicals will
form a mixture of unwanted carbon products such as alkenes
and coke when no hydrogen is present. However, the presence
of the hydrogen allows hydrogenation of radicals as opposed
to coke formation to take place. This hydrogenation is
favorable because it creates a new, extremely stable, carbon-
hydrogen bond.
FIGURE 2 [2]
An example of the hydrocracking reaction
Furthermore, since the original hydrocarbons have been
split homolytically, the product of this reaction is
hydrocarbons ofsmaller size, which are more easily converted
to usable fuel sources. This process also allows for the
saturation of cyclic and aromatic carbon compounds [6].
Cyclic and aromatic compounds contain single or multiple
rings of carbons. In the case of aromatic compounds,there is
a ring of conjugated carbon-carbon double bonds that give
aromatics special stability. Although these compounds can
exhibit strikingly different properties than straight chain
hydrocarbons, they nonetheless possess a large value as a
potentialfuel. Hydrocracking yields mainly dieseland jet fuel,
producing hydrocarbons mainly in the range of C10H20 to
C15H28 (diesel) and C8H18 to C16H34. More importantly this
process converts low value vacuum residue into extremely
high value fuel [2]. This process may also be considered
sustainable by making available previously unavailable fuel
yields, increasing the efficiency by which crude oil is refined.
Current Limitations

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Hydrocracking is not a perfect process, however, as it is
limited by several factors including the need for costly
catalysts and the buildup of coke in the reactor. One of the
greatest limitations to hydrocracking is that in order to be an
efficient refinement technique,it requires the use and frequent
replacement of expensive catalysts. These catalysts,which are
often comprised of rare metals such as molybdenum and
tungsten, catalyze the reaction because their surfaces provide
an alternative reaction pathway to hydrogenation.
Unfortunately, these catalysts often have short lives because
their surfaces are denatured by coke formation during the
reaction. Despite this, catalysts must be used because they are
vital to the reaction and dictate what type of feedstock the
hydrocracker can convert and what products will be produced
[7]. Feedstock is the raw vacuum residue that is fed into the
hydrocracker. Different feedstocks have different levels of
trace metals in them and require different types of catalyst to
remove these metals (commercial fuel is required to have very
low levels of impurity) [7].
The frequent replacement of these expensive catalysts can
be a financial burden for producers of fuel. In fact, the price
of the catalysts,which are made of molybdenum, nickel, cobalt
and tungsten supported on alumina, has risen by 300% in the
last 10 years [5]. Furthermore, the disposalof these catalysts
often presents several complications due to strict
environmental regulations [5]. It is clear that the
implementation of a cheaperand longer lasting catalyst would
greatly improve the profitability of hydrocracking, thus
increasing the total output of usable diesel and jet fuels [4].
Current research has focused on the use of the bauxite
compound more commonly referred to as ‘red mud’ as a
hydrocracking catalyst, which exhibits great promise in
solving these problems and increases the sustainability of the
process by reducing production costs by way of replacing the
expensive and rare aforementioned catalysts.
A LOOK AT RED MUD
Red Mud: What is it?
Simply put, red mud is a byproduct of the aluminum
production process that can be used as a hydrocracking
catalyst. Aluminum is refined via the Bayer process from the
mineral bauxite [4]. The Bayer process involves combining
sodium hydroxide, a very basic chemical, with bauxite under
highly pressurized conditions. This basic additive reacts with
the metals in the mineral ore to create metal hydroxides. The
sought after aluminum hydroxide is digested in the sodium
hydroxide and then separated from the othermetal hydroxides
which precipitate. After separation, high-heat and high-
pressure conditions are used to provide enough energy for
these metal hydroxides to decompose back into metal oxides
and water. As a result of this process, as much as 30 to 40
percent of the original bauxite is discarded as waste that
contains unwanted metal oxides, constituting red mud [4]. This
accounts for the fact that over 70 million tons of red mud are
produced annually, and is in accordance with the fact that red
mud is extremely cheap when compared to other catalytic
options that oil refineries have [4]. However, this process is
not very sustainable as it generates a great amount of
environmental waste and puts public safety at risk.
The composition of red mud is derived from the
composition of bauxite, which is typically only about 50%
aluminum oxide. The remaining bauxite contains a large
amount of iron and other metal oxides. Figure 3 provides a
breakdown of red mud composition by weight. Red mud gets
its name from the red color caused by the iron oxides present
in the compound. The composition of red mud can vary widely
depending on where the bauxite was mined, but its three largest
components are usually iron oxide, aluminum oxide, and
silicon dioxide, respectively. The iron oxide component can
comprise as much as 60% of the total mass. Red mud can also
contain anywhere from a trace amount to a considerable
portion of sodium oxide, calcium oxide, and titanium oxide.
Moreover, trace amounts of an array of elements including
potassium, chromium, vanadium, barium, copper, manganese,
lead, zinc, phosphorus, fluorine, sulfur and astatine may be
present depending on the sample [4]. This combination of
metal oxides causes dissolved red mud to be extremely basic,
often with a pH that ranges from about 10 to 13. This high
alkalinity causes red mud to be toxic and extremely harmful to
the environment. Later sections in this paper will explore the
environmental effects of red mud. Although harmful to the
environment, this high alkalinity also gives red mud properties
that make it useful during crude oil refinement [5]. This makes
the use of red mud in the hydrocracking process an
environmentally sustainable process, in which a harmful
environmental waste product is put towards a productive
application.
FIGURE 3 [4]
A chart showing typical composition of red mud
USE OF RED MUD AS A CATALYST IN
HYDROCRACKING
Red mud may be modified into a catalyst that greatly
decreases the rate of coke production and slightly increases the
yield of usable hydrocarbons, increasing the sustainability of
the hydrocracking reaction. In the simplest, now
technologically obsolete method, the red mud is dissolved in
water to form a very alkaline “slurry”. This slurry is then

4. Charles Kritkausky
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added to the vacuum residue feedstock and the mixture is
heated and reacted with hydrogen gas in the hydrocracker [6].
A large component of the compounds contained in the
vacuum residue are asphaltenes. Asphaltenes are large
complex hydrocarbon compounds that are connected by a
sulfur molecule. Their high molecular weight and bond with
sulfur account for why they cannot be distilled normally and
instead end up as a component of vacuum residue. The red
mud catalyst contains a high amount ofiron oxide which reacts
with the sulfur in asphaltenes to form the complex pyrrhotite
(Fe(x-1) Sx). This effectively splits the asphaltenes into two
different hydrocarbons, which can then be hydrocracked more
times to yield even smaller, more desirable hydrocarbons [6].
This interaction between red-mud and asphaltene is depicted
in Figure 4. An additional advantage to this mechanism is that
the red mud catalyst allows the asphaltenes to split apart
without forming reactive radicals; radicals that would in turn
react with themselves to form the thick coke build ups.
FIGURE 4 [5]
Diagram of asphaltene-red mud interaction
Apart from its effect on the breakdown of asphaltenes,red
mud catalysts also act to facilitate hydrogen uptake. This
means that any hydrocarbon compound that splits into radicals,
not just an asphaltene,is more likely to react with the hydrogen
present instead of with anotherradical. This happens because
the hydrogen binds to the surface of the red mud catalyst along
with the hydrocarbons. Since the hydrogen and hydrocarbons
are bound in close proximity to each other, there is a strong
chance that the hydrocarbon radicals (once formed) will react
with hydrogen instead of themselves. These reaction
characteristics decrease coke formation and increase the
formation of smaller hydrocarbons. In fact, the application of
red mud catalysts decreases coke formation by an astounding
92% [6]. Red mud also increases the yields of gasoline and
diesel components by a small percentage,but its true value lies
in its ability to inhibit coke formation and in increasing
production sustainability through decreased maintenance
expenses.
Ultimately, this catalyst allows refineries to produce more
fuel and use their catalysts and equipment for a longer period
of time, as there is less coke clogging the equipment necessary
to achieve refined petroleum products. Financially, the use of
red mud catalysts can considerably lower the operating costs
of a refinery due to their longevity, availability, and cheapness
[2]. However, by modifying red mud, it can be used to not
only keep coke production even lower, but also to more
noticeably improve the yield of usable fuels such as diesel and
make the overall process more sustainable.
MODIFICATION OF RED MUD
While unadulterated red mud is quite effective as a
hydrocracking catalyst, current research is ongoing to
determine techniques that can be employed to boost its
catalytic qualities by making alterations to the molecules that
comprise it. Alteration of the composition of red mud via the
Pratt-Christoverson (PC) method and the phosphoric
activation of red mud in solution have been the foci of this
research, with both methods displaying the effects of
increasing the hydrocarbon yield of hydrocracking and further
decreasing coking [6]. These processes both serve to achieve
activation of the catalyst by altering its acidity in solution,and
will be described in detail in the following sections.
Additionally, research is also being conducted on the effects of
changes to the surface of the molecule, altering the active sites
of red mud to further reduce the inhibitive production of coke
[7]. This research focuses on the introduction of surface
macro-mesoporosity to the catalyst, which refers to the
introduction of pores within the scale of nanometers (nm) in
diameter. These pores serve to modify the active sites on the
catalyst molecule, and change the manner in which red mud
interacts with hydrocarbon particles. The process by which
this textural change occurs and its effects on the hydrocracking
reaction will also be discussed later in further detail. These
changes in the properties of red mud offer further potential for
its use as a catalyst to improve the methods by which we obtain
our planet’s energy in a sustainable manner.
Effects of Red Mud Activation
The application of the PC method and phosphoric
activation of red mud both initiate the activation of the red mud
molecule, changing its catalytic properties. Activation of a
catalyst refers to the modification of active sites on the
molecule to provide additional reaction pathways,altering the
catalyst’s effects on the reaction [5]. These active sites are the
locations on the catalyst molecule receptive to reaction with
reactant particles, which in the case of hydrocracking are large
hydrocarbons. Activation ofred mud expands the surface area
of these sites,making them more accommodating for reaction
with these large particles, increasing the frequency with which
effective reaction collisions occur [6]. Both the PC method
and phosphoric activation produce this effect, and produce
similar effects on the hydrocracking reaction.
The PC method involves the traditional activation of a
catalyst by the introduction of heat, but differs in the
introduction of red mud into solution to alter its acidity.

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During this process, red mud is introduced to a boiling HCl
solution and precipitated through the addition of aqueous
ammonia to a pH of about 8 [6]. For active pore sites less than
100 Angstroms (Å) in diameter, this process produces up to a
1400% increase in pore volume, making smaller sites more
receptive to the large particles comprising vacuumresidue [6].
This increases the catalytic properties of red mud and
facilitates increased hydrogenation ofreactant particles, in turn
decreasing coking. Through the testing ofnitrogen absorption
of the altered catalyst, it has been determined that the PC
method has the effect of increasing the surface area of the
molecule by about 600% [6]. This increased surface area
increases its reaction potential and makes the molecule more
reactive as a catalyst. While the un-catalyzed hydrocracking
of vacuum residue typically yields about 14.07% by mass
(wt%) of coke experimentally, the reaction involving this
altered red mud catalyst produces a coke yield closer to 1.15
wt%, a substantial reduction in coke formation as a result of
improved hydrogen uptake [6]. Figure 5 displays the effects
various methods of activation have on the yields of the
hydrocracking reaction by wt%, including activation via the
PC method. It is shown that the use of red mud significantly
decreases the production of coke.
FIGURE 5 [6]
Product distribution graph of the yields produced by
activated red mud (ARM) and phosphorus activated red
mud (PARM) versus control tests with no catalyst and
with unmodified red med
Phosphoric activation of red mud occurs through a similar
process,but differs by the addition of phosphorus in the form
of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) to a solution of HCl. Phosphoric
activation has the effect of reducing catalyst poisoning by
metallic contaminants in addition to its improved catalytic
qualities. Catalyst poisoning occurs when contaminant
substances composing red mud bind to the molecule’s active
sites, inhibiting the effectiveness of red mud as a catalyst. In
the case of hydrocracking, carbon, sulfur, arsenic and lead
have the highest poisoning potential and bind to red mud’s
active sites quite easily, all of which can be found as impurities
in a given red mud sample [8]. The introduction of phosphorus
is effective in protecting against these unintended reactions
that are detrimental to the hydrocracking process, as
phosphorus is able to react with these impurities and render
them inert before they may react with the active sites of red
mud. While phosphoric activation of red mud produces a
slightly higher coke yield of 1.63 wt% in comparison with the
PC method, it produces a slightly higher yield of liquid
hydrocarbons, vacuumgas oil (VGO), and gas components as
well as also shown in Figure 5 [6].
The application of both the PC method and phosphoric
activation to red mud produces a significant decrease in
coking, and produces an increase in the recovery of liquid
components, VGO, and diesel through activation of the
molecule. Other processes, like the introduction of macro-
mesoporosity to the red mud molecule produce similar effects
by altering the surface of the molecule as well to make it more
receptive to reaction and the decomposition of heavy
hydrocarbon molecules, and further benefits the sustainability
of the process.
Variation of Red Mud Macro-Mesoporosity
The introduction of macro-mesoporosity to the red mud
catalyst is another technique that research has suggested
improves red mud’s viability as a catalyst. The process to
attain this altered red mud molecule involves the addition of
polymerized polystyrene as colloidal particles to the acidic
solution created from the PC method. This polymerization
occurs through the synthesis of the styrene monomer, which
forms long polymer chains when reacted in the presence of
potassiumpersulfate. These particles are then suspended into
a colloidal state in HCl solution. To control the size of the
particles, varying initial masses of styrene are used [7].
Further treatment of the precipitate recovered from the
solution is performed through calcination, which has the effect
of creating pores that serve as additional active sites on the
catalyst and permits diffusion of larger hydrocarbon reactant
molecules across the surface ofthe catalyst. Scanning electron
microscope (SEM) images of the surface of red mud depicting
pores of different diameters are provided in Figure 6,
displaying the effects of the introduction of variously-sized
polystyrene particles through this process [7]. Calcination
involves the heating of the precipitated red mud to 550oC in a
kiln, causing the precipitated polystyrene crystals to melt off
of the red mud molecule, leaving porous imprints of the
spherical crystals on the catalyst molecule [7].
FIGURE 6 [7]

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SEM images of (a) 150 nm polystyrene particles, (b and c)
macro-mesoporous red mud imprinted by 150 nm
particles, (d) 320 nm polystyrene particles, (e and f)
macro-mesoporous red mud imprinted by 320 nm
particles, (g) 730 nm polystyrene particles, (h and i)
macro-mesoporous red mud imprinted by 730 nm
particles
This process introduces a macro-mesoporous texture to the
red mud molecule, which increases alkane yield and decreases
coking within the reactor. This occurs as an effect of the
introduction of the imprinted pores,which serve to increase the
surface area of the red mud catalyst,providing more available
surface to react with hydrocarbons in a way similar to the
activation of the molecule, relying on the same theory [7]. The
size of the created pores has a small effect on the reaction and
can be used to adjust the yields of various products depending
on what is desired. In general, macro-mesoporosity leads to
higher liquid and VGO yields regardless of the size of the
imprinted pores.
While the production of coke remains fairly constant at a
yield of about .33 wt% regardless of pore size, smaller pores
of about 150 nm in diameter tend to favor the production of
lighter liquid fractions, while pores of up to 730 nm tend to
favor the production of heavier VGO products [7]. However,
the pores created by large polystyrene spheres with a diameter
greater than about 700 nm tend to display irregular macro-
mesoporosity, as the spheres tend to denature before the
imprinting is complete and can be limited in effectiveness as a
result. Figure 7 displays the effects that pores of various sizes
have on the yield distribution of the reaction. It shows that
research has supported the idea that macro-mesoporous red
mud catalysts exhibit the best catalytic performance when
applied to the hydrocracking of heavy crude oil fractions like
vacuum residue, ideally with a pore size less than 700 nm
where the recovery of the desired fuels is maximized [7].
FIGURE 7 [7]
Product distribution graph of the yields produced by
varying pore sizes of macro-mesoporous red mud
This modification provides the best suppression of coke
production along with an increased yield of VGO and lighter
liquid components, increasing the efficiency of the reaction
and process. The use of this catalyst provides the most
efficient way to conduct the hydrocracking of crude oil
components, and makes the refining of crude oil a more
sustainable process in the interests ofsociety,the environment,
and the global economy that depends on petroleum-based
energy.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF
RED MUD & SUSTAINABILITY
As a result of aluminum production,nearly 70 million tons
of red mud are produced each year globally, creating various
pressing problems with how to properly dispose of this
hazardous waste product in such large volumes [4]. Typically,
this waste is disposed of in storage ponds, which raises
concerns pertaining to groundwater contamination and soil
pollution based on its high corrosiveness and trace metal
content. Contamination is a threat not only to local
ecosystems, but to the safety of people living nearby as well.
An example of the problems posed by these toxic storage
ponds occurred in 2010 in Hungary, when the dam containing
a red mud storage reservoir burst in the town of Ajka. As a
result of this disaster,4 people were killed, and about 120 were
injured after coming into contact with or inhaling corrosive
fumes from the red mud sludge. The sludge was highly basic
with pH values as high as 13 collected from samples, which
contaminated as many as 40 square kilometers of land
surrounding the reservoir, as depicted in Figure 8 showing the

7. Charles Kritkausky
Alex Connor
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extent of the contamination [9]. This disaster is a clear
example of the problems associated with the production of red
mud, and the current inability to effectively dispose ofit. This
process is not sustainable,as it poses a threat to people and the
environment by way of a toxic waste product. While past
research has been dedicated towards newtechniques to dispose
and store red mud, its use as a hydrocracking catalyst offers to
be part of a sustainable solution to this problem. It is worth the
time and effort of engineers to find solutions to this problem,
to which the application of red mud to the hydrocracking
process constitutes part ofa solution.
FIGURE 8 [11]
Image of the area surrounding red mud containment
breach in Ajka, Hungary in 2010
It is the responsibility of engineers to promote “sustainable
development,” [10] in which new technology should be
promoted and used in a way that is socially, economically, and
environmentally responsible. The use of red mud as a catalyst
meets the requirement of this definition in each of these areas,
and provides a better understanding of the beneficial
implications ofthe application of red mud to the hydrocracking
process beyond the petroleum industry. On a social level, it
improves the methods by which society obtains energy and
allows people to live modern lives with ample access to
energy, as petroleum is the world’s primary energy source and
is made more useable with the use of red mud as a
hydrocracking catalyst. Economically, it increases the value
of crude oil by increasing its useable yield and making energy
more accessible, decreasing the costs associated with
production as well by limiting the maintenance costs imposed
by coking of the reactors. On a more traditional environmental
level, it reduces the byproducts of petroleum refinement and
removes dangerous waste fromthe environment for productive
use, and helps make the world a safer place for future
generations by reducing the potential for future disasters
similar to the one that occurred in Ajka. The environmental
benefits of the use of red mud of a hydrocracking catalyst are
twofold: a beneficial use of a deadly byproduct is achieved,
and petroleum-based waste products are reduced as access to
previously unusable crude oil components is enabled. The use
of red mud as a catalyst can be considered a sustainable
practice in multiple contexts in this way, which benefits
society, the economy and the environment. It is important for
engineers to keep these issues in mind when solving problems,
to prevent further disasters like the one that occurred Ajka and
so the current generation can obtain energy in a way not
detrimental to future ones. The use of red mud as a
hydrocracking catalyst makes the world a saferplace for future
generations,ensuring a cleaner environment and ample access
to cheaper energy.
IMPROVED ENERGY FOR THE FUTURE
The implementation of red mud as a catalyst in the
hydrocracking of vacuum residue serves to improve the
methods by which we obtain energy in a way that benefits the
environment by productively applying dangerous waste
products and reducing petroleum byproduct waste. The
application of the PC method, phosphoric activation, and
macro-mesoporosity to the red mud molecule further enhances
its value as a hydrocracking catalyst, by reducing coking and
increasing useable yields from previously unusable sources of
energy. Since petroleum is the primary source of energy for
the planet, it is imperative that new technologies like the use
of red mud as a catalyst continue to be implemented and
improved in a sustainable manner that future generations may
reap the rewards of as well.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Sarah Ireland, our co-chair, for her
advice and contributions during this stage of the paper writing
process. We would also like to thank Emelyn Furman for her
insight throughout the writing process.