This document discusses several topics related to learning, including learning styles, timing, sleep, cueing, context, and choice. Regarding learning styles, it summarizes that while individuals may have preferences, there is no evidence that learning is optimized by teaching methods aligned with learning styles. It also discusses factors related to the optimal timing of learning and influence of circadian rhythms. The effects of sleep on motor skill learning and memory consolidation are covered. External cues are found to benefit learning more than internal cues. Variability in practice context is shown to facilitate long-term retention more than blocked practice. Choice is seen to enhance motivation and motor learning.

1. Fact
Fiction
oror

3. Learning
styles
1
+

4. 01Visual
04Kinesthetic
Auditory02
Read/Write03

5. Individuals learn better when they receive information in
their preferred learning style (auditory, visual, kinesthetic)
UK93% NL96%
Dekker et al. (2012)

6. Dekker et al. (2012)
learning styles &
learning

7. Instruction Quality&
learning
Dekker et al. (2012)

8. no adequate evidence
to justify incorporating
learning-style assessments
into educational practice
Harold Pashler (2008, p. 105)

9. Learning Styles do not work
yet the current research literature is
full of papers which advocate their use
Phillip Newton (2015, p. 5)

10. Problems associated with applying learning styles
Number01 Number02
Coffield et al (2004) & Howard-Jones (2014)
Learning styles support
the view that learning is
based on fixed traits that
are stable over time
Contrasts The research
By Carol Dweck on growth
mindset and learning
Number03
Learning styles grew out of
the fact that sensory
information is processed in
different brain regions
this reasoning falls down
when the interconnectivity
of the brain is considered
Learning styles do not
factor in the importance
of context when applying
coaching strategies
Use strategies that are
relevant to the skill being
learned

11. learning styles CONTEXTCONTEXT
01 Describe IT
02 Demonstrate IT
03 Discuss IT
04 Do IT
05 Debrief IT

12. Fact Fiction
Learning is optimized when
coaches use their clients
preferred learning style

13. Learning
TIMING
2
+

14. 97.16
97.52
97.88
98.24
98.60
98.96
99.32
2400 0400 0800
1200 1600 2000 2400 0400
TEMP(Fahrenheit)
SLEEP
Drust (2005)
Biorhythms & core temperature

15. 0400 0800 12000600 1000 1400 18001600 2000
STRENGTH
Rowland (2011)

16. 0400 0800 12000600 1000 1400 18001600 2000
Power&
Performance
Rowland (2011)

17. 0400 0800 12000600 1000 1400 18001600 2000
Visual&
Auditory
ReactionRowland (2011)

18. 0400 0800 12000600 1000 1400 18001600 2000
Long-Term
MemoryRowland (2011)

19. 0400 0800 12000600 1000 1400 18001600 2000
Fine Motor
Control
Balance
Short-Term
Memory
Drust (2005) & Rowland (2011)

20. Rowland (2011)
Number01 Number02
Psychological Factors
expected to influence
Physical performance
tend to peak earlier
in the day
Number03
physiological factors
contributing towards
physical performance
Tend to peak in the
late afternoon and
early evening
The extent to which
our circadian rhythms
Influence performance
& responses to training
remains uncertain
applying Biorhythms to performance & Learning

21. considerations for timing learning
01 Coordination & Balance
02 Cognitively Demanding
03 Long-Term Memory
04 Strength & Power
05 Athletic performance

22. Fact Fiction
The time of day you train
has a direct impact on
learning & performance

23. Learning
Sleep
3
+

24. 24
DLPFC
PMC
SMC
M1
No Sleep Sleep
01: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
02: Premotor Cortex
03: Medial Temporal Lobe
04: Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
05: Supplementary Motor Cortex
06: Basal Ganglia
07: Cerebellum
Sleep and motor skill learning
MTL
Basal
Ganglia
Cerebellum
Explicit
(Knowing)
Implicit
(Doing)
Song (2009)

25. Implicit & explicit systems work together to
formulate learning, however, the elements that
require explicit attention also require sleep for
consolidation – “saving to the hard drive”

26. 01 Time pressure ↑ Errors
02 Response Time ↓
03 Working memory ↓
04 ↓ learning of cognitive Tasks
Sleep Loss & cognitive performance
Sleep Loss, Performance and learning
05 Performance ↓ With ↑ Duration
06 ↑ Effort to maintain performance
Process instruction
Reacting to opponent
Time dependent Tasks
Possible outcomes
Consolidate learning
Effects of fatigue
Fatigue sooner
Fullagar et al. (2015)

27. National Sleep Foundation Recommendations
12
06
0309
01
02
04
0507
08
10
11
Adolescence
9-10 Hours
12
06
0309
01
02
04
0507
08
10
11
7-8 Hours
Adult
Ferrara & De Gennaro (2001)

28. Optimizing your sleep Hygiene
01 Mindfulness
02 Warm Shower
03 Cool Room
04 Blackout
05 No technology

29. Fact Fiction
The more a client focuses on
a skill during practice the
less sleep that is required
to support learning

30. Learning
Cueing
4
+

31. External Focus
Explode Off The Ground
Internal Focus
Explode Through Your Hips
External Focus
Catch Ball at Highest
Point
Internal Focus
Extend your arms as high
as you can
Wulf, 2013

32. Wulf, 2013
Internal cues constrain the
motor system by asking the
person to focus on a Simple
part at the expense of the
complex whole. .
External cues Direct attention
towards relevant movement
features, allowing the body
to self-organize a preferred
movement solution.

33. DLPFC
PMC
SMC
M1
Novice Expert
01: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)
02: Premotor Cortex (PMC)
03: Supplementary Motor Cortex (SMC)
04: Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
“Focus On The Movement”Song, 2009 | Beilock, 2010

34. The Learning Brain of a Novice looks very
similar to the Choking Brain of an Expert –
the key – minimizing conscious focus on
“movement steps” during skill execution
Song, 2009 | Beilock, 2010
Consider how shifting your Clients
focus outward as opposed to inward
could support learning & mental
Robustness Over time

35. External Focus cues have been shown
to Protect Against choking &
encourage an expert-like
physiological state

36. External Focus &
PRACTICE
Phalavong (2015)

37. External Focus &
Retention
Transfer
Phalavong (2015)

38. Narrow | Internal
Broad | Internal
Close | External
Far | External
Normal Focus
No evidence to support its effectiveness
Possible benefit compared to narrow Internal
Conclusive evidence confirming effectiveness
Conclusive evidence confirming effectiveness
Benefit as experience level increases

39. Fact Fiction
Learning is improved
when clients focus on the
movement process opposed
to the movement outcome

40. Learning
Context
5
+

41. Skill1Skill2Skill3
S 1
S 1
S 1
S 1
S 2
S 2
S 2
S 2
S 3
S 3
S 3
S 3
BLOCKED Serial Random
Porter et al., 2010

42. A progressive increase in
contextual interference from
blocked to random has been
shown to be superior to
blocked or random only.
Porter et al., 2010

43. Porter et al., 2010
Learning is a result of the
attention deployed during
Training and the demands
placed on memory retrieval.
Interleaving drills ↑ demands
placed on Attention & memory.

44. Skill Retrieval Drives learning. To
strengthen retrieval we must first forget.
Skill spacing & variability creates
Desirable difficulty.

45. spacing out short & frequent bursts of
practice is key When trying to learn or
improve upon a given motor skill.

46. Fact Fiction
Training sessions that limit variation
and focus on a single version of a
skill will result in greater long-
term learning & retention than
training sessions that use multiple
versions of a skill

47. Learning
Choice
6
+

48. MOTIVATIONMOTOR LEARNING

49. Choice & Autonomy As Motivational Fuel
01 ↑ effort & persistence
02 ↑ physical performance
03 ↑ Concentration & Focus
04 ↑ Motor skill learning
The Optimal theory of Motor Skill learning
Wulf & Lewthwaite (2016)
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)

50. Humans are more than neutral processors
of information, and evidence suggests that
learning is optimized by practice conditions
that account for motivational factors
Lewthwaite & Wulf (2012, p. 173)

51. Provide feedback
on the ‘Process’
not the ‘Person’
“I can see that your hard
work is paying off, you’re
technique has improved
massively.”
VS.
“Great Job”
“You’re a Natural”
“You’re Very Talented”
Mueller & Dweck (1998) and Kamins & Dweck (1999)

52. Cultivating a growth mindset
01 ↑ Self-Efficacy & Confidence
02 ↑ Persistence & Effort
03 ↑ Physical Performance
04 ↑ Management Decisions
Chase (2010) & Dweck (2006) | “Mindset”
Wood & Bandura (1989)
Lirgg et al., (1996) &
Ommundsen (2003)
Jourden et al., (1991)
Kanfer (1990)

53. Nothing is more effective than sincere,
accurate praise, and nothing is more lame
than a cookie-cutter compliment
Bill Walsh (San Francisco 49ers Head Coach)

54. Empowering Learning Through Choice
01 Provide option to request feedback
02 Use questioning to involve client
03 Provide option to request demonstration
04 Provide choice around progression & Method
05 Justify Program - Progression & Regression

55. Fact Fiction
Just by giving a client choice,
you can increase motivation and
improve learning and retention
of a given skill

56. Thank
@NickWinkelman
You

57. References | Learning Styles
_ Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16
learning: A systematic and critical review: Learning and Skills Research Centre London.
_ Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles concepts and evidence.
Psychological science in the public interest, 9(3), 105-119.
_ Dekker, S., Lee, N.C., Howard-Jones, P., & Jolles, J. (2012). Neuromyths in education: Prevalence
and predictors of misconceptions among teachers.
_ Howard-Jones, P.A. (2014). Neuroscience and education: myths and messages. Nature Reviews
Neuroscience, 15(12), 817-824.
_ Newton, P.M. (2015). The learning styles myth is thriving in higher education. Frontiers in
psychology, 6.
_ Newton, P.M., & Miah, M. (2017). Evidence-Based Higher Education–Is the Learning Styles
‘Myth’Important? Frontiers in Psychology, 8.

58. References | Learning + Timing
_ Atkinson, G., & Reilly, T. (1996). Circadian variation in sports performance. Sports
medicine, 21(4), 292-312.
_ Drust, B., Waterhouse, J., Atkinson, G., Edwards, B., & Reilly, T. (2005). Circadian rhythms
in sports performance—an update. Chronobiology international, 22(1), 21-44.
_ Millar, K., Styles, B. C., & Wastell, D. G. (1980). Time of day and retrieval from long-term
memory. British Journal of Psychology, 71(3), 407-414.
_ Rowland, T. (2011). Athlete's Clock, The: How Biology and Time Affect Sport
Performance: Human Kinetics.
_ Winget, C. M., DeRoshia, C. W., & Holley, D. C. (1985). Circadian rhythms and athletic
performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.

59. References | Learning + Sleep
_ Ferrara, M., & De Gennaro, L. (2001). How much sleep do we need? Sleep medicine
reviews, 5(2), 155-179.
_ Fullagar, H.H., Skorski, S., Duffield, R., Hammes, D., Coutts, A.J., & Meyer, T. (2015). Sleep
and athletic performance: the effects of sleep loss on exercise performance, and
physiological and cognitive responses to exercise. Sports medicine, 45(2), 161-186.
_ Song, S. (2009). Consciousness and the consolidation of motor learning. Behavioural
brain research, 196(2), 180-186.

60. References | Learning + Cueing
_ Maurer, H., & Munzert, J. (2013). Influence of attentional focus on skilled motor
performance: Performance decrement under unfamiliar focus conditions. Human
Movement Science, 32(4), 730-740.
_ Ong, N.T., Bowcock, A., & Hodges, N.J. (2010). Manipulations to the timing and type of
instructions to examine motor skill performance under pressure. Frontiers in
Psychology, 1(196), 1-13.
_ Winkelman, N. C., Clark, K. P., & Ryan, L. J. (2017). Experience level influences the effect
of attentional focus on sprint performance. Human Movement Science, 52, 84-95.
_ Winkelman, N. C. (2017). Attentional Focus and Cueing for Speed Development.
Strength & Conditioning Journal.
_ Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International
Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 77-104.

61. References | Learning + Context
_ Lage, G. M., Ugrinowitsch, H., Apolinário-Souza, T., Vieira, M. M., Albuquerque, M. R., &
Benda, R. N. (2015). Repetition and variation in motor practice: a review of neural
correlates. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 132-141.
_ Porter, J. M., Landin, D., Hebert, E. P., & Baum, B. (2007). The effects of three levels of
contextual interference on performance outcomes and movement patterns in golf
skills. International journal of sports science & Coaching, 2(3), 243-255.
_ Porter, J. M., & Magill, R. A. (2010). Systematically increasing contextual interference is
beneficial for learning sport skills. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(12), 1277-1285.
_ Vidoni, E.D., & Boyd, L.A. (2007). Achieving enlightenment: what do we know about the
implicit learning system and its interaction with explicit knowledge? Journal of
Neurologic Physical Therapy, 31(3), 145-154.

62. References | Learning + Choice
_ Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., & Drews, R. (2015). External focus and autonomy support: Two
important factors in motor learning have additive benefits. Human movement science,
40, 176-184.
_ Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation
and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic
bulletin & review, 23(5), 1382-1414.
_ Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., Cardozo, P., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2017). Triple play: Additive
contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional
focus to motor learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology(just-
accepted), 1-22.

63. Appendix A | Learning Styles & Other Myths
Howard-Jones (2014)

64. Appendix B | Optimizing Sleep
Fullagar et al. (2015)

65. Appendix C | Cueing Framework