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Systems thinking
General system theory, therefore, is a general
science of "wholeness...The meaning of the
somewhat mystical expression, "The whole is
more that the sum of its parts" is simply that
constitutive characteristics are not explainable
from the characteristics of the isolated parts.
The characteristics of the complex, therefore,
appear as "new" or "emergent"...

                 Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory
What are Systems?
A system is an abstract model which "explains"
some aspect of the world and rules for its
                                                   ELEMENTS
operation.                                         Any object, boundary or relation that can
                                                   be articulated
                                                   BOUNDARIES
As you study system thinking and the history of    Any idea that separates elements--for
                                                   example, different shapes, attributes or
the world views that have preceded it, it is       time. Boundaries may also be defined by
                                                   attachment to a core idea, a generating
important to recognize that any description of a   idea
thing, including a systems description, is a       RELATIONS
                                                   Any idea that associates elements--for
mental construct invented for a particular         example, same shape, sharing a boundary
reason or occasion. There are no systems out       or an attribute, following from a prior
                                                   element or state
there. We project onto the world our own           CAUSE
schemes for organizing our experience, though      That which brings into being any aspect of
                                                   a system--for example, an idea, a
as members of cultures we use common models.       boundary, a relation, a precedent
                                                   condition, a presence, an absence . . . .
If we examine any of these models thoughtfully
                                                   QUALITIES
we can see that, like any language, they are       Characteristics of the whole which are
                                                   evident only at the level of the whole and
formed of parts and processes, rules and limits.   are different from characteristics of the
                                                   parts or elements
The science of these relations is system theory.
General Characteristics of
         Systems Thinking



1. Each part of an organization can only be understood in terms of its relation to the other
   parts of the organization.
2. The parts of the organization, including their interrelatedness, are important insofar as they
   contribute to the overall functioning of the organization.
3. Organizations, conceived as wholes, may be thought of metaphorically as biological
   organisms, replete with needs or goals that are super-ordinate to and conceptually
   separate from the conscious needs, purposes, and goals of individual parts or members.
4. These needs and goals of organizations may be conceived either statically (e.g. survival or
   maintenance or order) or dynamically (e.g. in terms of purposive evolution or change).
5. Organizational activity of any significance is understandable in terms of its relation to the
   external environment, which provides the resources and conditions on which the
   organization depends for its survival or the realization of its purposes.
Clouds and Clocks

“There are lots of things, natural processes and natural
phenomena, which we may place between these two extremes -
the clouds on the left, and the clocks on the right. The changing
seasons are somewhat unreliable clocks, and may therefore be
put somewhere towards the right, though not too far. I suppose
we shall easily agree to put animals not too far from the clouds
on the left, and plants somewhat nearer to the clocks. Among the
animals, a young puppy will have to be placed further to the left
than an old dog. Motor cars, too, will find their place somewhere
in our arrangement, according to their reliability - Perhaps
furthest to the right should be placed the solar system.”
                                                        Karl Popper
Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (1-4)
            “Classical sciences"                         “The systems view of the world”
The worldview of the classical sciences             The new systems sciences look at nature as an
conceptualized nature as a giant machine            organism endowed with irreplaceable
composed of intricate but replaceable               elements and an innate but non-deterministic
machine-like parts.                                 purpose for choice, for flow, for spontaneity.

The classical worldview was atomistic and           The systems view perceives connections and
individualistic; it view objects as separate from   communications between people, and
their environments and people as separate           between people and nature, and emphasizes
from each other and from their surroundings.        community and integrity in both the natural
                                                    and the human world.
The classical worldview was materialistic,          The systems view gives a new meaning to the
viewing all things as distinct and measurable       notion of matter, as a configuration of
material entities.                                  energies that flow and interact, and allows for
                                                    probabilistic process, for self-creativity, a well
                                                    as for unpredictability.

In its application to everyday affairs, the         The new vision emphasizes the important of
classical worldview extolled the accumulation       information and hence of education,
of material goods and promoted a power              communication, and human services over the
hungry, compete-to-win ethos.                       accumulation of material goods and the
                                                    acquisition of raw power.
Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (5-7)
           “Classical sciences"                 “The systems view of the world”
The classical worldview saw growth in the    The systems view, looking first of all to the
material sphere as the pinnacle of           whole formed by social and economic
socioeconomic progress and promoted          parts, insists on sustainable development
greater and greater use (and indirectly of   through flexibility and accommodation
waste) of energies, raw materials, and       among cooperative and interactive parts.
other resources.
The classical worldview was Eurocentric,     The holistic vision takes in the diversity of
taking Western industrialized societies as   human cultures and societies and sees all of
the paradigms of progress and                them as equally valid, ranking them only in
development.                                 regard to sustainability and the satisfaction
                                             they provide for their members.
The classical worldview was also             The systems view sees humans as organic
anthropocentric, perceiving human beings     parts within a self-maintaining and self-
as mastering and controlling nature for      evolving whole that is the context and the
their own ends.                              precondition of life on this planet.
Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (8-9)
           “Classical sciences"                  “The systems view of the world”
When the classical worldview was applied      When the systemic vision inspires the
to social science, the dominant notions       theories of social science, the values of
turned out to be struggle for survival, the   competition are mitigated by those of
profit of the individual, with at best an     cooperation, and the emphasis on
assumed automatic coincidence of              individualistic work ethos is tempered with
individual and societal good (through Adam    a tolerance of diversity and of
Smith's "invisible hand").                    experimentation with institutions and
                                              practices that foster man-man and man-
                                              nature adaptation and harmony.
When the classical worldview was applied      When the systems view is the basis of a
to medical science, the human body            diagnosis the body is seen as a system of
appeared to be a machine frequently in        interacting parts, and body and mind are
need of repair by factual and impersonal      not separable. It is the health of the whole
interventions and treatments. The problems    system that is to be maintained by attention
of the mind were seen to be separable from    to psychic and interpersonal as much as to
those of the body and hence to be             physical and physiological factors.
separately treated.
Fritjof Capra Summary on
             Systems Thinking
1. A shift from the parts to the whole: Systems science shows that living systems
   cannot be understood by analysis.
     • It is useful to apply the same concepts to different systems levels
     • In general, different systems levels represent different degrees of
        complexity
     • Contextual thinking: explanation by describing the environment
     • A shift from objects to relationships: In the systems view we realize that
        the objects themselves are networks of relationships, embedded in larger
        networks. For the systems thinker the relationships are primary.
2. The ability to shift attention back and forth between systems levels
3. The metaphor of knowledge as a network of concepts and models in which
   there are no foundations. The material universe is seen as a dynamic web of
   interrelated events. None of the properties of any part of this web is
   fundamental; they all follow from the properties of the other parts, and the
   overall consistency of their interrelations determines the structure of the entire
   web.
Systems thinking
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE SYSTEM THEORIES
          THEORY          Structural Assumptions                      Cause                   Process            Omissions
Classic            An all-encompassing unity within        Formal (fulfilling form;      Labeling,          No explanation of
                   which there is a clear hierarchy of     because it is what it is)     describing,        why things change
                   ordered elements                                                      classifying
                                                           Final (teleological;
                                                           purportive)
Dynamic            Distinct elements assembled as          Efficient (cause-effect)      Empirical-analytic No explanation of
(Scientific/       building blocks into larger, distinct   Material (determined by                          intentionality, of
Mechanistic)       wholes. Boundaries well defined.        the composition of the                           "why" or for what
                   Performance of parts determines         elements)                                        purpose a thing
                   performance of whole                                                                     exists

Communication      Separate elements bound together Efficient                            Information        Does not deal with
(Cybernetic)       in systems which have a purpose;                                      exchange;          self-renewing quality
                   feedback adjusts and controls      Final                              feedback for       of living entities
                   performances; boundaries clear but                                    control
                   must take into account bias
                   viewpoint of observer
Field              Holistic; boundaries are not real but Formal (It is because it is) Entrainment           Does not deal with
                   assumptions to help our                                            (interaction of       parts or
                   understanding. Everything is          Entrainment (linking         energy fields)        individuation of the
                   connected and interdependent.         through energy exchange)                           person
                                                                                      Force-field
                                                                                      analysis
Evolutionary       Elements are identifiable but also      Final ("enfolded")            Transforming
                   may change (transform); change                                        (Stability-chaos
                   generated from within; a system is      Morphogenic (evolves          transformation-
                   composed of hierarchy of                from inherent sources)        stability)
                   substructures; boundaries intrinsic,    Mutual causality (loops not
                   not in observer's mind; systems are     lines)
                   self-organizing, self-defining
"Process philosophy"
      Alfred North Whitehead
              Whitehead thought of individual entities as series of
              moments of experience instead of as masses of
              static substance. Within each moment, an entity is
              influenced by others, creates its own identity and
              propels itself into further experiences. Because of
              the involvement of all moments of experience with
              each other, Whitehead conceived of the entire
              cosmos as an organic whole. Just as all the cells in
              our bodies are interrelated, all elements of the
              universe are interrelated. These relationships are not
              all equal: a single skin cell on a person's toe does not
              affect his or her life as much as does a nerve cell in
(1861–1947)   the brain. Complex groups of cells, such as the
              nervous system, have a greater influence on the
              person than single cells.
“General Systems Theory"
      Ludwig von Bertalanffy
              Whitehead thought of individual entities as series of
              moments of experience instead of as masses of
              static substance. Within each moment, an entity is
              influenced by others, creates its own identity and
              propels itself into further experiences. Because of
              the involvement of all moments of experience with
              each other, Whitehead conceived of the entire
              cosmos as an organic whole. Just as all the cells in
              our bodies are interrelated, all elements of the
              universe are interrelated. These relationships are not
              all equal: a single skin cell on a person's toe does not
(1901-1972)   affect his or her life as much as does a nerve cell in
              the brain. Complex groups of cells, such as the
              nervous system, have a greater influence on the
              person than single cells.
“Cybernetics"
              Norbert Weiner

               A cybernetic system is one that learns on the basis of
               feedback ("learning" and "feedback" are distinctive,
               technical terms in cybernetics). In the paradigm case, a
               system acts, observes the result of that action, compares
               that result to some pre-determined criterion state, and
               acts again in a way to move the system even closer to the
               desired state.

(1894-1964)
“Second-Order Cybernetics"
              Ilya Prigogine

                In information theory and first-order cybernetics, positive
                feedback was considered, respectively, uninformative or
                destructive. However, in dissipative systems, positive
                feedback loops are understood as a source of new order
                and complexity as the system develops new patterns and
                organizes itself.



(1917 - 2003)
“Chaos Theory"
                       Edward Lorenz
                   Chaos comes into focus when one shifts perspective. The shift
                   moves from thinking of systems as wholes, who's dynamic
                   involves maintaining or crossing boundaries (open vs. closed
                   systems) or cycles of acting - monitoring - interpreting feedback
                   - acting again (cybernetics) and to thinking of systems as
                   reproducing themselves in each new moment iteratively,
                   engaging in repeated actions following a set of rules. In this
                   perspective, the language of homeostasis and equilibrium are
                   set aside in favor of a vocabulary describing emerging patterns:
                   bifurcation points, attractors, fractals, etc.

(1917 - 2008)

1. Simple systems give rise to complex behavior.
2. Complex systems give rise to simple behavior.
3. The laws of complexity hold universally, regardless of the details of a system's
   constituent atoms.
“Complex Adaptive System"
     New England Complex Systems Institute
                                       http://www.necsi.edu

                                                Complex Systems is a new field of science
                                                studying how parts of a system give rise to
                                                the collective behaviors of the system, and
                                                how the system interacts with its
                                                environment.


1. Each complex adaptive system (CAS) is a network of many "agents" acting in parallel. “
2. A CAS has many levels of organization, with agents at any level serving as the building blocks
   for agents at a higher level.
3. All CASs anticipate the future
4. CASs typically have many niches, each of which can be exploited by an agent adapted to fill
   that niche. And, since the act of filling a niche opens up more niches, new opportunities are
   always being created by the system. "And that, in turn, means that it's essentially
   meaningless to talk about a complex adaptive system being in equilibrium: the system can
   never get there. It is always unfolding, always in transition. In fact, if the system ever does
   reach equilibrium, it isn't just stable. It's dead."

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Systems thinking

  • 2. General system theory, therefore, is a general science of "wholeness...The meaning of the somewhat mystical expression, "The whole is more that the sum of its parts" is simply that constitutive characteristics are not explainable from the characteristics of the isolated parts. The characteristics of the complex, therefore, appear as "new" or "emergent"... Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory
  • 3. What are Systems? A system is an abstract model which "explains" some aspect of the world and rules for its ELEMENTS operation. Any object, boundary or relation that can be articulated BOUNDARIES As you study system thinking and the history of Any idea that separates elements--for example, different shapes, attributes or the world views that have preceded it, it is time. Boundaries may also be defined by attachment to a core idea, a generating important to recognize that any description of a idea thing, including a systems description, is a RELATIONS Any idea that associates elements--for mental construct invented for a particular example, same shape, sharing a boundary reason or occasion. There are no systems out or an attribute, following from a prior element or state there. We project onto the world our own CAUSE schemes for organizing our experience, though That which brings into being any aspect of a system--for example, an idea, a as members of cultures we use common models. boundary, a relation, a precedent condition, a presence, an absence . . . . If we examine any of these models thoughtfully QUALITIES we can see that, like any language, they are Characteristics of the whole which are evident only at the level of the whole and formed of parts and processes, rules and limits. are different from characteristics of the parts or elements The science of these relations is system theory.
  • 4. General Characteristics of Systems Thinking 1. Each part of an organization can only be understood in terms of its relation to the other parts of the organization. 2. The parts of the organization, including their interrelatedness, are important insofar as they contribute to the overall functioning of the organization. 3. Organizations, conceived as wholes, may be thought of metaphorically as biological organisms, replete with needs or goals that are super-ordinate to and conceptually separate from the conscious needs, purposes, and goals of individual parts or members. 4. These needs and goals of organizations may be conceived either statically (e.g. survival or maintenance or order) or dynamically (e.g. in terms of purposive evolution or change). 5. Organizational activity of any significance is understandable in terms of its relation to the external environment, which provides the resources and conditions on which the organization depends for its survival or the realization of its purposes.
  • 5. Clouds and Clocks “There are lots of things, natural processes and natural phenomena, which we may place between these two extremes - the clouds on the left, and the clocks on the right. The changing seasons are somewhat unreliable clocks, and may therefore be put somewhere towards the right, though not too far. I suppose we shall easily agree to put animals not too far from the clouds on the left, and plants somewhat nearer to the clocks. Among the animals, a young puppy will have to be placed further to the left than an old dog. Motor cars, too, will find their place somewhere in our arrangement, according to their reliability - Perhaps furthest to the right should be placed the solar system.” Karl Popper
  • 6. Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (1-4) “Classical sciences" “The systems view of the world” The worldview of the classical sciences The new systems sciences look at nature as an conceptualized nature as a giant machine organism endowed with irreplaceable composed of intricate but replaceable elements and an innate but non-deterministic machine-like parts. purpose for choice, for flow, for spontaneity. The classical worldview was atomistic and The systems view perceives connections and individualistic; it view objects as separate from communications between people, and their environments and people as separate between people and nature, and emphasizes from each other and from their surroundings. community and integrity in both the natural and the human world. The classical worldview was materialistic, The systems view gives a new meaning to the viewing all things as distinct and measurable notion of matter, as a configuration of material entities. energies that flow and interact, and allows for probabilistic process, for self-creativity, a well as for unpredictability. In its application to everyday affairs, the The new vision emphasizes the important of classical worldview extolled the accumulation information and hence of education, of material goods and promoted a power communication, and human services over the hungry, compete-to-win ethos. accumulation of material goods and the acquisition of raw power.
  • 7. Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (5-7) “Classical sciences" “The systems view of the world” The classical worldview saw growth in the The systems view, looking first of all to the material sphere as the pinnacle of whole formed by social and economic socioeconomic progress and promoted parts, insists on sustainable development greater and greater use (and indirectly of through flexibility and accommodation waste) of energies, raw materials, and among cooperative and interactive parts. other resources. The classical worldview was Eurocentric, The holistic vision takes in the diversity of taking Western industrialized societies as human cultures and societies and sees all of the paradigms of progress and them as equally valid, ranking them only in development. regard to sustainability and the satisfaction they provide for their members. The classical worldview was also The systems view sees humans as organic anthropocentric, perceiving human beings parts within a self-maintaining and self- as mastering and controlling nature for evolving whole that is the context and the their own ends. precondition of life on this planet.
  • 8. Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (8-9) “Classical sciences" “The systems view of the world” When the classical worldview was applied When the systemic vision inspires the to social science, the dominant notions theories of social science, the values of turned out to be struggle for survival, the competition are mitigated by those of profit of the individual, with at best an cooperation, and the emphasis on assumed automatic coincidence of individualistic work ethos is tempered with individual and societal good (through Adam a tolerance of diversity and of Smith's "invisible hand"). experimentation with institutions and practices that foster man-man and man- nature adaptation and harmony. When the classical worldview was applied When the systems view is the basis of a to medical science, the human body diagnosis the body is seen as a system of appeared to be a machine frequently in interacting parts, and body and mind are need of repair by factual and impersonal not separable. It is the health of the whole interventions and treatments. The problems system that is to be maintained by attention of the mind were seen to be separable from to psychic and interpersonal as much as to those of the body and hence to be physical and physiological factors. separately treated.
  • 9. Fritjof Capra Summary on Systems Thinking 1. A shift from the parts to the whole: Systems science shows that living systems cannot be understood by analysis. • It is useful to apply the same concepts to different systems levels • In general, different systems levels represent different degrees of complexity • Contextual thinking: explanation by describing the environment • A shift from objects to relationships: In the systems view we realize that the objects themselves are networks of relationships, embedded in larger networks. For the systems thinker the relationships are primary. 2. The ability to shift attention back and forth between systems levels 3. The metaphor of knowledge as a network of concepts and models in which there are no foundations. The material universe is seen as a dynamic web of interrelated events. None of the properties of any part of this web is fundamental; they all follow from the properties of the other parts, and the overall consistency of their interrelations determines the structure of the entire web.
  • 11. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE SYSTEM THEORIES THEORY Structural Assumptions Cause Process Omissions Classic An all-encompassing unity within Formal (fulfilling form; Labeling, No explanation of which there is a clear hierarchy of because it is what it is) describing, why things change ordered elements classifying Final (teleological; purportive) Dynamic Distinct elements assembled as Efficient (cause-effect) Empirical-analytic No explanation of (Scientific/ building blocks into larger, distinct Material (determined by intentionality, of Mechanistic) wholes. Boundaries well defined. the composition of the "why" or for what Performance of parts determines elements) purpose a thing performance of whole exists Communication Separate elements bound together Efficient Information Does not deal with (Cybernetic) in systems which have a purpose; exchange; self-renewing quality feedback adjusts and controls Final feedback for of living entities performances; boundaries clear but control must take into account bias viewpoint of observer Field Holistic; boundaries are not real but Formal (It is because it is) Entrainment Does not deal with assumptions to help our (interaction of parts or understanding. Everything is Entrainment (linking energy fields) individuation of the connected and interdependent. through energy exchange) person Force-field analysis Evolutionary Elements are identifiable but also Final ("enfolded") Transforming may change (transform); change (Stability-chaos generated from within; a system is Morphogenic (evolves transformation- composed of hierarchy of from inherent sources) stability) substructures; boundaries intrinsic, Mutual causality (loops not not in observer's mind; systems are lines) self-organizing, self-defining
  • 12. "Process philosophy" Alfred North Whitehead Whitehead thought of individual entities as series of moments of experience instead of as masses of static substance. Within each moment, an entity is influenced by others, creates its own identity and propels itself into further experiences. Because of the involvement of all moments of experience with each other, Whitehead conceived of the entire cosmos as an organic whole. Just as all the cells in our bodies are interrelated, all elements of the universe are interrelated. These relationships are not all equal: a single skin cell on a person's toe does not affect his or her life as much as does a nerve cell in (1861–1947) the brain. Complex groups of cells, such as the nervous system, have a greater influence on the person than single cells.
  • 13. “General Systems Theory" Ludwig von Bertalanffy Whitehead thought of individual entities as series of moments of experience instead of as masses of static substance. Within each moment, an entity is influenced by others, creates its own identity and propels itself into further experiences. Because of the involvement of all moments of experience with each other, Whitehead conceived of the entire cosmos as an organic whole. Just as all the cells in our bodies are interrelated, all elements of the universe are interrelated. These relationships are not all equal: a single skin cell on a person's toe does not (1901-1972) affect his or her life as much as does a nerve cell in the brain. Complex groups of cells, such as the nervous system, have a greater influence on the person than single cells.
  • 14. “Cybernetics" Norbert Weiner A cybernetic system is one that learns on the basis of feedback ("learning" and "feedback" are distinctive, technical terms in cybernetics). In the paradigm case, a system acts, observes the result of that action, compares that result to some pre-determined criterion state, and acts again in a way to move the system even closer to the desired state. (1894-1964)
  • 15. “Second-Order Cybernetics" Ilya Prigogine In information theory and first-order cybernetics, positive feedback was considered, respectively, uninformative or destructive. However, in dissipative systems, positive feedback loops are understood as a source of new order and complexity as the system develops new patterns and organizes itself. (1917 - 2003)
  • 16. “Chaos Theory" Edward Lorenz Chaos comes into focus when one shifts perspective. The shift moves from thinking of systems as wholes, who's dynamic involves maintaining or crossing boundaries (open vs. closed systems) or cycles of acting - monitoring - interpreting feedback - acting again (cybernetics) and to thinking of systems as reproducing themselves in each new moment iteratively, engaging in repeated actions following a set of rules. In this perspective, the language of homeostasis and equilibrium are set aside in favor of a vocabulary describing emerging patterns: bifurcation points, attractors, fractals, etc. (1917 - 2008) 1. Simple systems give rise to complex behavior. 2. Complex systems give rise to simple behavior. 3. The laws of complexity hold universally, regardless of the details of a system's constituent atoms.
  • 17. “Complex Adaptive System" New England Complex Systems Institute http://www.necsi.edu Complex Systems is a new field of science studying how parts of a system give rise to the collective behaviors of the system, and how the system interacts with its environment. 1. Each complex adaptive system (CAS) is a network of many "agents" acting in parallel. “ 2. A CAS has many levels of organization, with agents at any level serving as the building blocks for agents at a higher level. 3. All CASs anticipate the future 4. CASs typically have many niches, each of which can be exploited by an agent adapted to fill that niche. And, since the act of filling a niche opens up more niches, new opportunities are always being created by the system. "And that, in turn, means that it's essentially meaningless to talk about a complex adaptive system being in equilibrium: the system can never get there. It is always unfolding, always in transition. In fact, if the system ever does reach equilibrium, it isn't just stable. It's dead."