This presentation was prepared for the Michigan Shepherd's Weekend, January 6, 2018.

1. WORM WISDOM
Gut parasites are an age-
old problem that require
new solutions.

3. American Consortium for Small Ruminant
Parasite Control (ACSRPC)
Formed in response to the critical state of the small ruminant industry associated with the emergence
of anthelmintic resistant worms, the consortium is a group of scientists, veterinarians, and extension
specialists devoted to (1) developing novel methods for sustainable control of gastro-intestinal
nematodes in small ruminants and (2) educating the stakeholders in the small ruminant industry on
the most up-to-date methods and recommendations for control of gastrointestinal nematodes.

4. wormx.info or acsrpc.org

5. Online FAMACHA© Certification
• Two members of the consortium are
piloting online FAMACHA© certification.
• Dr. Katherine Petersson, University of Rhode Island
• Dr. Anne Zajac, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Vet Medicine
1. View 2.5 hours of video: Integrated
Parasite Control and Why and How to Do
FAMACHA© scoring.
2. Make a video of yourself demonstrating your
FAMACHA© technique and send to URI.
3. Have follow-up with URI, if needed.
4. Upon completion receive certificate of
competence and right to purchase FAMACHA©
card(s).
http://web.uri.edu/sheepngoat/famacha/

6. Overview of problem
• Internal parasites are the primary
health problem affecting small
ruminants.
• Internal parasites can be a major
obstacle to profitability in many
production situations.
• Sheep and especially goats are more
susceptible to the effects of parasitism
than other farm livestock.
• Lack of FDA-approved drugs and
declining drug efficacy make parasite
control an even greater challenge.

7. Two parasites are usually of primary concern.
HAEMONCHUS CONTORTUS
Barber pole worm COCCIDIA (EIMERIA SPP.)

8. Effective parasite control requires an
integrated approach
Management (mostly)
• Pasture rest and rotation
• Forage management
• Host immunity
• Nutrition
• Timing of lambing
• Zero grazing (dry lot)
• Genetic selection
Drug (as needed)
• Maintain refugia
• Targeted selective treatment
• Test for drug resistance
• Combination treatments

9. These ain’t your father’s parasites!

10. Worms have developed resistance to all
dewormers and dewormer classes.
• Resistance is the genetic ability of a
worm to survive a dose of anthelmintic
which would normally be effective.
• Only worms that survive treatment
carry genes that confer resistance.
• Resistance is result of selection
through exposure of worm population
to an anthelmintic.
• When more than 5% of worms are
“drug tolerant”; i.e. failure to reduce
FEC by 95% or more (some say 90%).
http://www.scops.org.uk/what-is-resistance.html

11. Two ways to determine anthelmintic resistance
Fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) DrenchRite® larval development assay

12. Fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT)
• Compare before and after fecal egg
counts
• Need ~15 animals per drug
1-2 animals won’t tell you much
• Need minimum FEC of 250 epg,
preferably higher.
• Can use individual or composite
(pooled) samples.
• Cost varies. Can learn to do yourself.
• “Logistically challenging”

13. DrenchRite® test
Larval development assay (LDA)
• Laboratory test that determines
resistance to all drug classes
simultaneously from a single pooled
fecal sample (~10 animals).
• Need minimum FEC of 500 epg.
• Also identifies worm species from
larvae, i.e. Percent Haemonchus
• Test done exclusively by Dr. Ray
Kaplan’s lab at University of Georgia.
• $450 per sample

14. Animal Before After % FECR
1 1000 100 90%
2 500 25 95%
3 6000 150 98%
4 4350 250 94%
5 3000 1000 67%
6 1200 400 67%
7 1500 200 87%
8 750 50 93%
9 1100 100 91%
10 3100 200 94%
11 2900 200 93%
12 475 200 58%
13 900 100 89%
14 1100 50 95%
15 300 0 100%
Avg 1878 145 87%
Fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT)

15. Anthelmintic resistance in southeastern US
29 farms in MD, VA, and GA (2016-2017, ASI Let’s Grow Project)
Determined by DrenchRite® test
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Benzimidazoles Ivermectin Levamisole Moxidectin
Maryland Virginia Georgia
Percent farms with resistance
<95% FECR

16. Anthelmintic resistance in Michigan
7 large sheep farms (2013)
Determined by fecal egg count reduction test
0
20
40
60
80
100
Benzimidazoles Ivermectin Moxidectin Levamisole
Percent farms with resistance
<95% FECR

17. Resistance is inevitable!
Practices which accelerate development of resistant parasites:
1. Frequent deworming, especially calendar-based treatments
2. Whole flock/herd treatments
3. Under-dosing of drugs
4. Treat and move strategy: moving treated animals to a clean pasture
5. Rotating dewormers
6. Depositing drug in mouth instead of oral cavity
7. Use of persistent (long) activity dewormers (macrocylic lactones),
including pre-lambing drenching.
8. Use of injectable dewormers
9. Use of pour-on dewormers
10. Feeding dewormers to groups of animals
11. Improper storage of dewormers

18. Anthelmintics
(dewormers)
101

19. Anthelmintics 101
• An anthelmintic is a drug that expels
parasitic worms (helminths) and other
internal parasites from the body by
either stunning or killing them.
• It must be selectively toxic to the
parasite and not the host.
• It may be broad spectrum or targeted.
• It may contain single or multiple drug
actives.
Benzimidazoles were the first class of modern dewormers.

20. Anthelmintics 101
• Anthelmintics are separated into
classes (or groups) based on
similar chemical structure and
mode of action.
• While one drug may initially be
more potent than another, there
is cross-resistance among
anthelmintics in the same group.
• Anthelmintics for small
ruminants fall into three groups.
Ivermectin was introduced in the early 1980’s.

21. Anthelmintics for small ruminants
Benzimidazoles
Macrocylic lactones (MLs) Nicotinic agonists
Avermectins Milbemycins Imidazothiazoles Tetrahydropyrimidines
Thiabendazole
TBZ®
Ivermectin
Ivomec®
Moxidectin
Cydectin®
Quest®
Levamisole
Prohibit®
Leva-Med®
Tramisol®
Levasole®
Mortantel
Rumatel®
many trade names
Fenbendazole
SafeGuard®
Doramectin
Dectomax® Pyrantel
Strongid®
Albendazole
Valbazen®
Eprinomectin
Eprinex®
Oxfendazole
Synanthic®
1 2 3

22. FDA-approved anthelmintics for sheep
1
Benzimidazoles
VALBAZEN®
sheep drench
2a
Avermectins
IVOMEC®
sheep drench
2b
Milbimycins
CYDECTIN®
sheep drench
3
Levamisole
PROHIBIT®
LEVA-MED®
Adult worms    
Larvae (L4)    Limited
Hypobiotic larvae    Limited
Lungworms    
Tapeworms 
Liver flukes Adult stage
Coccidia
External parasites
Some
labeled for bot control
Some
Not labeled
Persistent activity  
Safety
10x
pregnancy restriction
(first 30 days)
20x 5x 3x
Labeled Dosage 3 ml/100 lbs. 3 ml/26 lbs. 1 ml/11 lbs.
Depends on dilution
2 ml/50 lbs.
(concentrated drench)
Meat withdrawal 7 days 11 days 7 days 3 days

23. FDA-approved anthelmintics for goats
1 Benzimidazoles 3b Morantel
Fenbendazole
SAFEGUARD®
Albendazole
VALBAZEN®
Feed premix
RUMATEL®
Adult worms  Not approved 
Larvae (L4)  Not approved sporadic
Hypobiotic larvae  Not approved
Lungworms  Not approved
Tapeworms Not labeled Not approved
Liver flukes Adult stage
Coccidia
External parasites
Persistent activity
Safety
wide 10x (sheep)
pregnancy restriction
~20x (sheep)
Labeled dosage 1.2 ml/50 lbs. 4 ml/100 lbs. Varies by product
Meat withdrawal 6 days 7 days 30 days
Milk withdrawal 0 days

24. Extra-label anthelmintics for goats
1 Benzimidazoles 2a Avermectins
IVOMEC®
sheep drench
2b Milbimycins
Moxidectin
CYDEDTIN® sheep drench
3a Levamisole
PROHIBIT®
LEVA-MED®
Fenbendazole
SAFEGUARD®
Albendazole
VALBAZEN®
Adult worms     
Larvae (L4)     Limited
Hypobiotic larvae     Limited
Lungworms     
Tapeworms Not labeled 
Liver flukes Adult stage
Coccidia
External parasites Some
label for bot control
Some
Not labeled
Persistent activity  
Safety
wide 10x
pregnancy restriction
20x 5x 3x
ACSRPC
recommended dosage
1.1 ml/25 lbs. 2 ml/25 lbs. 6 ml/25 lbs. 4.5 ml/25 lbs.
Depends on
dilution
Meat withdrawal 16 days
(1 day for each additional day used)
9 days 14 days 17 days 4 days
Milk withdrawal 4 days
(1 day for each additional day used)
7 days 9 days 8 days 3 days

25. “There now is very strong evidence
that using combination treatment
is the best method for using
dewormers and should be instituted
on all farms immediately.”
Dr. Ray Kaplan, University of Georgia (January 2017, www.wormx.info)
https://www.wormx.info/combinations

26. Rationale for combination treatments
• Most farms have resistance to at least
two dewormer groups.
• At first introduction, drug efficacy is over 99%.
• Once efficacy falls below 95%, drug resistance
is present, though drug is still useful for
treatment.
• As effectiveness of dewormer decreases
(<95%), as it is used more, it provides less and
less benefit to animals.
• Below 50%, it is no longer effective as the sole
treatment.
There is already resistance to Zolvix® in
other countries. Zolvix® is not sold in US.

27. Why give combination treatments?
• Contrary to popular belief, rotating between
dewormers will not prevent resistance from
developing. In fact, it will allow worms to
develop resistance to multiple drugs
simultaneously. It is no longer
recommended.
• Research done in New Zealand has shown
that the best approach is to use several
different dewormers at one time as a
combination treatment.
• When combined with “best management
practices” (that help to maintain refugia),
combination treatments may improve drug
efficacy and result in a reversion back toward
susceptibility.
Most dewormers sold in New Zealand and Australia
are combination products (multiple drug actives in
same product); No combination products are
available for small ruminants in US.

28. Why/How combination treatments work?
• Unlike rotating drugs, there is an additive
effect with each drug used in a
combination treatment.
• When resistance is low, there may be a
synergistic effect with a combination
treatment.
• By achieving a higher efficacy, there are
fewer resistant worms that survive
treatment.
• The sooner you start using combination
treatments the better, as you achieve the
greatest difference in the percentage of
resistant survivors when efficacy of
dewormers is high.
Drug 1 Drug 2 Drug 3 Combo12 Combo123
80% 80% 80% 96.00% 99.20%
90% 90% 90% 99.00% 99.90%
60% 95% 98.00% 98.00%
60% 60% 95% 84.00% 99.20%
99% 99% 99.99% 99.99%
60% 60% 60% 84.00% 93.60%
50% 50% 50% 75.00% 87.50%
40% 40% 40% 64.00% 78.40%
95% 80% 20% 99.00% 99.20%

29. Recommendations for combination treatments
• Purchase and administer each dewormer singly in
a separate syringe or drench gun.
• Do not mix dewormers.
• They are not chemically compatible.
• Only veterinarians have the right to compound
medications.
• Administer each dewormer at full dose based on
an accurate weight.
• Can give one drug immediately after the other.
• Observe withdrawal period of drug with longest
withdrawal period.

30. Recommendations for giving combo treatments
Valbazen®* Cydectin® Prohibit®*
Sheep 1.5 ml/50 lbs.
[7 days]
4.5 ml/50 lbs.
[7 days]
Depends on dilution
[3 days]
Goats 4 ml/50 lbs.
[9 days meat]
[7 days milk]
9 ml/50 lbs.
[17 days meat]
[8 days milk]
Depends on dilution
[4 days meat]
[3 days milk]
Camelids 4 ml/50 lbs. 9 ml/50 lbs. Depends on dilution
*Do not use first 30 days of pregnancy
www.wormx.info

31. Recommendations continued
• Do not give combination treatments to all
animals in a management group.
• Selective treat to maintain refugia.
1. FAMACHA© eye anemia system
2. Five Point Check©
3. Performance indicator(s)
• If you treat all animals, you will simultaneously
develop resistant to all dewormer classes,
eventually leaving you no drugs to effectively
treat clinically-parasitized animals.
• Combination treatments require extra-label
drug use in goats and camelids (VCPR).
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S S
R
S
R
R R
R
S
S
R
Deworming

32. Copper oxide wire particles (COWPs)
can be successfully integrated into
Haemonchus contortus (barber pole
worm) management strategies on
sheep and goat farms, particularly
when producers are armed with
knowledge on how to use it safely.
Dr. Lisa Williamson
University of Georgia

33. Copper oxide wire particles (COWPs)
• Tiny needles of copper oxide.
• Slow release form of copper (Cu).
• Poorly absorbed form of copper vs. copper
sulfate which has caused copper toxicity 
when given to some sheep.
• COWPs have been shown to reduce barber
pole worm infections in sheep and goats.
Only “natural” substance with consistent
proven efficacy against worms in animal.
• Available as a copper supplement for cattle
(12, 25-g) and goats (2, 4-g). https://www.wormx.info/copper-oxide-wire-particles

34. Using COWPs to deworm small ruminants
1. FIRST: assess copper status of flock
(especially) or herd by submitting
livers to a lab for a mineral panel.
2. REPACKAGE cattle and goat boluses
into smaller doses for sheep and
goats.
3. ALWAYS use lowest dose possible to
achieve anthelmintic effect (more is
not better!).
• 0.5 to 1 g for lambs and kids
• 1-2 g for mature animals
MSU Veterinary Diagnostic Lab
https://www.animalhealth.msu.edu/

35. Using COWPs to deworm sheep and goats
1. SELECTIVELY treat: FAMACHA©
3s, 4s, and 5s.
2. ADMINISTER using a bolus or
balling gun; the gel cap is small,
so you may need something
sticky to hold capsule in the gun.
3. MINIMIZE the number of
treatments given to the same
animal.
4. PERIODICALLY check livers to see
what copper levels are. https://www.wormx.info/cowp-safety

36. Another combination treatment
COWPs + dewormer
Treatment
(10-23 lambs per Tx group)
Efficacy
(%FECR)
No treatment (control) Increase
Valbazen® (3 ml/50 lbs.) 20%
COWP (2 g, Ultracruz™) 58%
COWP (2 g, Copasure®) 12%
Valbazen® + COWP 99%
Burke, USDA-ARS, Booneville, Arkansas
http://www.wormx.info/cowpcombo
Similar results were obtained when
COWPs were combined with
levamisole (Prohibit®).
(USDA, unpublished data)

37. The concept of leaving
a proportion of animals
untreated, with the
aim to maintain
parasite populations in
refugia, is now widely-
accepted as the best
means of preserving
anthelmintic
susceptibility within
the parasite
population.

38. Treatment strategies for worm control
Suppressive 
• Whole-group
treatment at
regular
intervals.
Strategic 
• Whole-group
treatment at
strategic times,
such as before
parturition or
at weaning.
Targeted 
▪ Whole-group
treatment,
based on
marker of
infection.
Targeted selective
▪ Individual
treatment
based on
marker of
infection.
 REFUGIA BASED 
 CALENDAR BASED 

39. Targeted Selective Treatment (TST)
• Treating only a portion of the flock or
herd.
• Only treating animals that require or
would benefit from treatment.
• Requires having tools that can easily be
implemented on the farm, chute-side.
• Balance between delaying drug resistance
and maintaining productivity.
 

 





40. Decision-making tools for TST
1. FAMACHA© eye anemia system
2. Five Point Check©
3. Performance-based indicators

41. FAMACHA© eye anemia system
• A technique used in small ruminants to
assess the level of anemia resulting from
infection with Haemonchus contortus (the
barber pole worm).
• System developed in South Africa as an
alternative approach to the common practice
of frequent deworming of all animals, which
has been associated with widespread
emergence of anthelmintic resistance.
• Named for its originator: Faffa Malan (chart)
Dr. “Faffa” Malan (R)

42. FAMACHA© eye anemia system
Clinical
Category
Eye Lid
Color
Packed Cell
Volume/PCV
Treatment
recommendation
1 Red > 28 No
2 Red-Pink 23-27 No
3 Pink 18-22 ?
4 Pink-White 13-17 Yes
5 White < 12 Yes
Cards are now made in US.
University of Georgia is sole
distributor.

43. Proper FAMACHA© technique: COVER-PUSH-PULL-POP
1. COVER the animal’s eye with
your thumb.
2. Slightly PUSH down on the eye
ball, applying enough pressure so
that the eye lashes curl up over
your thumb.
3. After you PULL down the eye
lower eyelid,
4. The mucous membranes will POP
into view.

44. FAMACHA© DO’s and DON’Ts
DON’T
• Don’t try to expose
membranes simply by pulling
down eyelid.
• Don’t score inner surface of
lower eyelid; score bed of
mucous membranes.
• Don’t use half scores; round
up.
• Don’t shade eye
DO
• Repeat with other eye lid
• If you score the other eye
higher, err on the side of
caution and use the higher
score.
• Stick with first impressions.
• Score under natural lighting.

45. Deworming decisions with FAMACHA©
DEWORM FAMACHA© 4 and 5 DON’T DEWORM FAMACHA© 1 and 2*
*Unless there are other clinical signs of parasitism

46. Decision-making: deworm FAMACHA© 3s if . . .
• There is other evidence of parasitism.
• Flock or herd is not in good overall
body condition and health.
• More than 10% of flock/herd is
anemic (FAMACHA© 4, 5)
• There is a dramatic shift in scores.
• Periparturient females
• Lambs and kids

47. Proper care of FAMACHA© card
• Store FAMACHA© card in
dark place when not in use
• Replace after 12-24 months
of use
• Keep a spare card (unused)
for comparison of colors.
• Don’t try to reproduce card
by scanning and printing.

48. How to get a FAMACHA© card
• Veterinarians may purchase cards from
University of Georgia.
• Producers must take an approved training
in order to get a card.
• FAMACHA© certification is now available
online from the University of Rhode
Island.
http://web.uri.edu/sheepngoat/famacha/

49. Overcoming FAMACHA©’s limitations
It is limited to parasites that cause
anemia (blood loss)
Answer: Use Five Point Check©
It is labor intensive: each animal has to be
handled individually
Answer: Use Performance-based indicators

50. Five Point Check® 5.
• Simple extension of the FAMACHA© system,
which allows assessment of animal for other
parasites, especially those causing loss of
condition and weight and scours.
• Includes five check points on animal’s body.
1. Nose
2. Eye
3. Jaw
4. Back
5. Tail

51. # Checkpoint Observation Possibilities
1 Nose Nasal discharge 0-1
Nasal botfly
0–1 Lungworms
Pneumonia
Other diseases
2 Eye Anemia
1-5
FAMACHA© card
Barber pole worm
Liver fluke
Hook worms
Other diseases
3 Jaw Soft swelling 0-1
Barber pole worm
Liver fluke
Hook worms
Conical fluke
Other worms
Other diseases
4 Back Condition score
1-5
BCS card
Brown stomach worm
Bankrupt worm
(Long-necked bankrupt worm
Nodular worm
Tapeworms?
Other worms
Other diseases
5 Tail Soiling
0-1
Dag score card
Bankrupt worm
Conical fluke
Brown stomach worm
Nodular worm
Other worms
Other diseases

52. The Five Point
Check© for targeted
selective treatment of
internal parasites in
small ruminants
(Bath, 2009)

53. 1. Nose
Snotty noses: a clear or
purulent nasal discharge may
be indicative of nasal bots.
Nasal bots are caused by the
bot fly, Oestrus ovis.
Infection is usually milder in
goats.
Ivermectin is highly effective against all stages of the larvae.

54. 2. FAMACHA© score

55. 3. Jaw
“Bottle jaw” Submandibular edema hypoproteinaemia
Accumulation of liquid under the jaw. Soft, cool, pitting edema. Swelling under jaw.

56. 4. Back – body condition score
1 – emaciated
2 – thin
3 – average
4 – fat
5 – obese
Body condition scoring has many
uses on a sheep and goat farm.
It is an assessment of the amount of
muscle and fat covering the
backbone and the short ribs of each
animal.
Half scores are used.

57. 5. Tail: fecal soiling
• Parasites which cause a decrease in body
condition score, may also cause mild to severe
diarrhea.
• Animals suffering from the worst diarrhea are
most likely to benefit from deworming.
• As with other check points, there are many
causes of diarrhea, but parasites is a major
one.
• It is proposed that only animals showing overt
signs of diarrhea be treated

58. What else should you consider when making
deworming decisions for FAMACHA© 3s.
• Frequency of scoring
• Hair coat condition
• Pot belly
• DISCO (diarrhea score)
Dry matter of feces
• Performance indicators
• Fecal egg count (FEC)

59. Performance-Based Indicators
• Non-Haemonchus parasites cause loss
of body weight and condition and
diarrhea (scours).
21% of farms in ASI Let’s Grow Study
to determine anthelmintic resistance
had < 60% Haemonchus contortus.
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% HAEMONCHUS CONTORTUS

60. The Happy Factor™
• The Happy Factor™ decision-support model discriminates
between animals that are likely to respond favorably to
treatment vs. those that are not.
• Lambs which fail to reach target weights are dewormed; those
that do not, are not.
• Target weights are determined by modeling and are a measure
of nutrient efficiency: energy deposited ÷ energy consumed.
• Requires bi-weekly weighing; works best with precision-
farming technology.
• Happy Factor™ model results in less dewormer use, while
maintaining productivity.

61. Will the Happy Factor™ concept work in US?
• The Happy Factor™ has only been
evaluated in temperate climates
where non-Haemonchus worms
predominate (UK, NZ).
• In 2017, Vista View Farm
(Damascus, MD) conducted a SARE-
funded study to look at the
feasibility of using real-time
generated rate-of-gain to determine
deworming need where
Haemonchus is primary parasite
(97% according to larvae ID).

62. What Vista View Farm learned
• Rate-of-gain criteria (<0.3 lb/day for Bluefaced Leicester
lambs) was in agreement with FAMACHA© criteria (4 or 5)
70 percent of the time.
• It takes less time to weigh lambs as compared to
FAMACHA© scoring them (50% less w/RFID, auto-
weighing).
• Weekly weighing was too frequent
• Resulted in too much deworming
• Biweekly weighing is recommended
• There needs to be different rate-of-gain criteria for ewes
and wethers (and rams); challenge is coming up with gain
criteria.

63. What about using fecal egg counts as a decision
making tool for deworming?
• Not a highly accurate test, especially
at low numbers.
• Short pre-patent period of most
parasite makes FECs not very useful in
high challenge environments.
• No widely accept threshold for
treatment.
• Not farmer-friendly, not chute-side

64. What about using fecal egg counts as a
decision making tool for deworming?
• Not a reliable method to diagnose
parasitic disease in individual animal;
more accurate at the group level.
• Do not use fecal egg counts as a sole
indicator of when to deworm an animal.
• Can use fecal egg counts in conjunction
with FAMACHA©, Five Point Check®, or
other performance indicators.

65. Performance indicators for worm control
WEIGHT GAIN
• Lambs/kids
that fail to
meet
performance
targets are
dewormed.
MILK YIELD
• Higher-
producing dairy
females are
dewormed.
• For the same
reason, does
and ewes raising
multiples could
be targeted for
deworming.
• Also, yearlings.
BODY CONDITION
▪ A portion of the
flock/herd is left
untreated.
▪ The females in the
poorest body
condition are
dewormed.
FECAL EGG COUNT
▪ Deworm animals
when fecal egg
count reach a
certain threshold.
▪ Do fecal egg counts
on animals with
other indicators.

66. The fungus may soon be among us.

67. What is Duddingtonia flagrans?
• A natural strain of fungus isolated
from the environment and found
around the world.
• Nematophagous fungus
WORM-KILLING!
• Found on pasture (rarely in soil) or
in manure where it builds a
microscopic net that traps,
paralyzes, and consumes juvenile
stages (larvae) of parasitic worms.

68. How does it work?
1. It is a supplement fed to grazing livestock.
2. The spores pass through the digestive tract of the animals into the manure.
3. The fungus consumes larvae in the manure, preventing re-infection.

69. D. fragrans and worm control
• A non-chemical biological control
for parasites in grazing animals.
• Interrupts the crucial re-infestation
stage of the parasite’s life cycle,
thereby reducing re-infection of
contaminated pastures.
• Highly host-specific, only targeting
parasitic nematodes.
• Not harmful to the livestock.
"I have been told that the product should be
available in the US sometime early 2018. Stay tuned.
" Dr. Jim Miller, Louisiana State University (retired).

70. SUSAN SCHOENIAN
Sheep & Goat Specialist
sschoen@umd.edu
www.sheepandgoat.com
www.wormx.info