My contact address Dr Shahnaj Parveen Professor Department of Agricultural Extension Education Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) Mymensingh-2202 Bangladesh Mobile: ++88-01715 340215 Email: shahnaj1969@gmail.com

1. FARMING & RURAL SYSTEMS ECONOMICS
edited by Werner Doppler and Siegfried Bauer
VOLUME
72
Empowerment of Rural
Women in Bangladesh:
A Household Level Analysis
Shahnaj Parveen
ISBN 3-8236-1469-X
ISSN 1616-9808
D 26

2. Shahnaj Parveen
Empowerment of Rural Women in Bangladesh: A Household Level Analysis
edited by
Werner Doppler
Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics,
University of Hohenheim, Germany
Siegfried Bauer
Dept. of Regional- and Project-Planning,
Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany
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Layout
Shahnaj Parveen
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In the series „Farming and Rural Systems Economics“ methodological and empirical
results of research in the fields of Farming Systems and Rural Development in the Tropics
and Subtropics is published.
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• the research concept is based on systems research and
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ISBN 3-8236-1469-X D 26
ISSN 1616-9808

3. Preface
This empirical study was carried out under the DAAD Programme ‘Agricultural Economics and
Related Sciences’ at the Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany. The programme is
exclusively designed for scholars from developing countries. While the gender issue has been
considered as one relevant socio-economic aspect in previous publications of this series, this
empirical study concentrates completely on this topic. The investigation was conducted by the
author from 2001 to 2005 including a 6-month field survey in Bangladesh. This study also led
the author to the attainment of a Ph.D. degree.
The achievement of gender equality and empowerment for women is one of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). It is perceived that the status of women in Bangladesh is very
low. In order to upgrade their status, this study seeks to explore and link various aspects
involved in the empowerment process of rural women at household level. It follows a
triangulation methodology combining both qualitative and quantitative data. This research will
bring a new dimension in the area of gender study, research methodology and in formulating
policy options for rural women’s advancement in Bangladesh.
On behalf of the editors: Siegfried Bauer, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Prof. Dr. Leonhaeuser for her continuous support and cooperation in
completing the doctoral study timely. She is highly thankful to Prof. Dr. Bauer for his valuable
suggestions in a series of seminars and his guidance that highly inspired the researcher to
achieve such a magnificent success.
The researcher is highly grateful to Amjath for his expert comments on the draft of the report,
excellent editing and constant encouragement to accomplish this difficult task. She is
particularly thankful to Immaculate who made outstanding comments and edited the thesis
brilliantly.
She is indebted to all her colleagues and friends, especially to Jacob, Victor, Silvère, Jofi,
Richard, Jacqueline, Linda, Ulrike and Steffi for their intellectual support during the tenure of
the study through discussions and encouragement.
The investigator wishes to acknowledge the research grant provided by Deutscher
Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) to pursue her doctoral study in Germany.
Finally, she offers her sincere gratitude to the colleagues of Bangladesh Agricultural University
for their useful insights and valuable guidance during the period of field survey. She is highly
grateful to enumerators and facilitators who patiently and accurately collected data from
respondents. The researcher thanks the residents of Sutiakhali, Bijoynagar and South
Charkalibari villages, particularly the respondents for their co-operation during the field study.

4. This study was financed by DAAD
Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
German Academic Exchange Service

5. TABLE OF CONTENTS i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………………
LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………….
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………
LIST OF BOXES……………………………………………………………………
ABBREVIATIONS.………………………………………………………………..
1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..
1.1 Background of the Study………………………………………………....
1.1.1 Women’s Marginalisation: The Global Picture.…..………………
1.1.2 Women’s Marginalisation in South Asia: A brief Overview……...
1.1.3 Women’s Contribution to Rural Development: A Summary…...…
1.1.4 International Conventions and Treaties for Women’s Rights …….
1.1.4.1 First World Conference on Women, 1975………………...
1.1.4.2 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 1979………..
1.1.4.3 Second World Conference on Women, 1980……………..
1.1.4.4 Third World Conference on Women, 1985…………….…
1.1.4.5 Summit on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women,
1992……………………………………………………….
1.1.4.6 International Conference on Population and Development
(ICPD), 1994…………………………….………………..
1.1.4.7 Fourth World Conference on Women, 1995……………...
1.1.4.8 World Food Summit, 1996………………………………..
1.1.4.9 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2000……….…
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem………………………………………
1.3 Objectives and Hypotheses of the Study…………………………………
1.3.1 Objectives of the Study…………………………………….………
1.3.2 Hypotheses of the Study …………………………………………...
1.4 Special Features of the Study……………………………………………..
1.5 Limitations of the Study………………………………………………….
1.6 Organisation of the Study………………….……………………………..
2 SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW…………
2.1 Socio-economic Status of Women………………………………………..
2.1.1 Education…………………………………….……………………
2.1.1.1 Formal Education………………………………………....
2.1.1.2 Non-Formal Education…………………………………....
2.1.2 Health, Nutrition and Sanitation …………………………………..
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6. TABLE OF CONTENTSii
2.1.2.1 General Health and Nutrition…………………………….
2.1.2.2 Reproductive and Sexual Health…………………………
2.1.2.3 Water and Sanitation……………………………………..
2.1.2.4 Efforts Made by the Development Agencies in Promoting
Women’s Health………………………….……………….
2.1.3 Employment……………………………………………….……….
2.1.4 Gender Linked Poverty…………………………………………….
2.2 Women in Power and Decision-making…………………………………..
2.2.1 Women in Public Services…………………………………………
2.2.2 Women in Parliament………………………………………………
2.2.3 Women in Local Government……………………………….…….
2.3 Violence against Women………………………………………………….
2.3.1 Rape and Sexual Harassment ………………………….…………..
2.3.2 Maiming by Acid…………………………………………………..
2.3.3 Dowry………………………………………………………………
2.3.4 Domestic Violence…………………………………………………
2.3.5 Community Violence………………………………………………
2.3.6 Abduction and Trafficking in Women and Children………………
2.4 Cultural Barriers in Women’s life…….……..……………………………
2.4.1 Gender Segregated Roles………………………………………….
2.4.2 Mobility ……………………………………………………………
2.4.3 Purdah……………………………………………………………..
2.4.4 Early Marriage……………………………………………………..
2.4.5 Son preference …………………………………….………………
2.5 Women’s Legal Rights: Myths and Realities…………………….….…...
2.6 Role of Development Agencies towards Women’s
Advancement……………………………………………………………..
2.7 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………..
3 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF GENDER EQUALITY AND
WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT…………………………………………...
3.1 Gender Equality and Development: Beneath the Surface………………..
3.1.1 Key Concepts Linked to the Notion of Gender……………………
3.1.1.1 Sex versus Gender.....................................................……..
3.1.1.2 Gender Relations………………………………………….
3.1.1.3 Condition versus Position…………………………………
3.1.1.4 Gender Stereotypes……………………………………......
3.1.1.5 Gender Discrimination…………………………………....
3.1.1.6 Gender Gap………………………………………………..
3.1.1.7 Patriarchy………………………………………………….
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7. TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
3.1.1.8 Gender Awareness………………………………………...
3.1.1.9 Gender Equality versus Gender Equity …………………..
3.1.1.10 Gender Roles: Multiple Roles of Women……………...
3.1.1.11 Gender Needs: Practical versus Strategic Needs……....
3.1.2 Gender Focused Policy Approaches to Development …………….
3.1.2.1 Women In Development (WID) Approach……………….
3.1.2.2 Gender And Development (GAD) Approach……………..
3.1.2.3 Comparative Scenario of WID and GAD: The Shift from
Women to Gender…………………………………………
3.2 Women’s Empowerment: Conceptual and Analytical Issues………….…
3.2.1 Women’s Empowerment: A Comprehensive View……………….
3.2.1.1 Concept of Power………………………………………....
3.2.1.2 Conceptualising Women’s Empowerment………………..
3.2.1.3 Features of Women’s Empowerment Process…………….
3.2.1.4 Dimensions of Women’s Empowerment……………….…
3.2.1.5 Levels of Women’s Empowerment……………………….
3.2.2 Conceptual Frameworks for Analysing Women’s Empowerment...
3.2.2.1 Kabeer’s Framework……………………………………...
3.2.2.2 Chen and Mahmud’s Framework…………………………
3.2.2.3 Longwe’s Hierarchical Framework……………………….
3.2.3 Strategies Suggested for Empowering Women: An Overview of
Literature…………………………………………………………..
3.2.4 Measuring Women’s Empowerment……………………………....
3.2.4.1 Methodological Principles in Measuring Women’s
Empowerment……………………………………………..
3.2.4.2 Measuring Women’s Empowerment: A Review of
Previous Studies…………………………………………..
3.3 Conceptual Framework of the Study……………………………………..
3.4 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………..
4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY……………………………..
4.1 Overview of Research Methodologies in Social Science Research………
4.1.1 Qualitative versus Quantitative Approach…………………………
4.1.2 Mixed-Method Approach …………………………………………
4.1.2.1 Strengths of Mixed-Method Approach……………………
4.1.2.2 Limitations of Mixed-Method Approach …………………
4.2 Methodological Design Chosen for the Study…..………………………..
4.3 Methods Used for Data Collection……………………………………….
4.3.1 Qualitative Data Gathering Methods………………………………
4.3.2 Quantitative Data Gathering Methods……………………………..
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8. TABLE OF CONTENTSiv
4.4 Study Area……………….……………………………………………….
4.4.1 Rationale for the Research Site.……………………………….…..
4.4.2 Basic Features of the Study Villages…………………….………….
4.4.2.1 Sutiakhali as Modern Village……………………………..
4.4.2.2 Bijoynagar as Semi-modern Village………………………
4.4.2.3 South Charkalibari as Traditional Village…………………
4.5 Sampling Design and Survey Instruments………..………………….…..
4.5.1 Sampling Design………………………………...…………….......
4.5.2 Construction of Structured and Semi-structured Interview
Schedules …………...……………..………………………………
4.6 Procedures and Period of Data Collection………………………………..
4.6.1 Focus Group Discussions………………………………………….
4.6.2 Use of Participatory Tools…………………………………..……..
4.6.3 The Survey……………………………………………....………...
4.6.4 Case Studies……………………………………………………….
4.6.5 Interviews with Key Informants…………………………………...
4.6.6 Direct observations………………………………………………...
4.7 Processing of the Primary Data ……………………………………….…
4.8 Secondary Data…………………………………………………………...
4.9 Validity, Reliability and Ethical Measures…………………………….…
4.9.1 Validity…………….…………………………………………....…
4.9.2 Reliability………………………………………………………….
4.9.3 Ethical Considerations……………………………………………..
4.10 Measurement of Variables………………….………………………….…
4.10.1 Constructs for Empowerment of Rural Women…………………
4.10.1.1 Economic Contribution to Household …………………
4.10.1.2 Access to Resources...……………………………….…
4.10.1.3 Ownership of Assets……………………………….......
4.10.1.4 Participation in Household Decision-Making……….…
4.10.1.5 Perception of Gender Awareness………………...........
4.10.1.6 Capacity to Cope with Household Shocks……………..
4.10.2 Explanatory Variables…………………………………………...
4.10.2.1 Conjugal Age…………....…………….……………….
4.10.2.2 Formal Education………………………………….…...
4.10.2.3 Non-formal Education…………………………….....…
4.10.2.4 Having Only Male Children…………..…………….….
4.10.2.5 Spousal Alienation……………………………………..
4.10.2.6 Media Exposure………………………………………..
4.10.2.7 Spatial Mobility………………………………………...
4.10.2.8 Traditional Socio-cultural Practices……………......…..
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9. TABLE OF CONTENTS v
4.10.3 Other Relevant Terms…………………………………………...
4.10.3.1 Status of Rural Women………………………………...
4.10.3.2 Gender Division of Labour…………………………….
4.10.3.3 Household Income……………………………………..
4.10.3.4 Initiatives Taken by Rural Women to Increase
Household Income……………………………………...
4.11 Development of Rural Women’s Cumulative Empowerment Index
(CEI): Dependent Variable…………………………………………….…
4.12 Data Analysis Strategy…………………………………………………..
4.12.1Qualitative Data Analysis……………………………………….…
4.12.2Quantitative Data Analysis………………………………………...
4.12.2.1 Paired t-test………………………………....………….
4.12.2.2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)…………………….…
4.12.2.3 Spearman’s Rank Correlation………………………….
4.12.2.4 Step-wise Multiple Linear Regression…………………
4.13 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………..
5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL MILIEU OF RURAL WOMEN’S
EMPOWERMENT: TRENDS AND PERCEPTIONS………………………..
5.1 Background Characteristics of Respondents …………………….……....
5.1.1 Profile of Rural Women’s Households……………………....……
5.1.2 Education Profiles of Rural Spouses…………………………....…
5.1.2.1 Formal Education of Rural Spouses……………………....
5.1.2.2 Non-formal Education of Rural Spouses…………….……
5.1.3 Economic Profile of Rural Household …………………………....
5.1.3.1 Homestead Area…………………………………………..
5.1.3.2 Family Farm Size………………………………………....
5.1.3.3 Income of Rural Household……………………………….
5.1.3.4 Savings of Rural Household …………………………..….
5.1.4 Rural Women’s Exposure to Media………………………....…….
5.1.5 Rural Women’s Spatial Mobility………………………………….
5.1.6 Traditional Socio-cultural Practices Affecting Rural Women.…....
5.1.7 Rural Women’s Aspirations in life……………………………..…
5.2 Trends of Rural Women’s Empowerment in the Locality……………….
5.3 Community Leaders’ Perception of Rural Women’s Empowerment……
5.4 Direct Observations………………………………………………………
5.5 Concluding Remarks …………………………………………………….
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10. TABLE OF CONTENTSvi
6 ANALYSING RURAL WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT:
DETERMINANTS AND CONSTRAINTS…………………………………..
6.1 Status of Rural Women…………………………………………………..
6.2 Gender Division of Labour…………………………………………….…
6.2.1 Gender Involvement in Productive Activities……………………..
6.2.2 Gender Involvement in Reproductive activities…………………...
6.2.3 Gender Involvement in Community Managing Activities………...
6.2.4 Comparison of Rural Spouses’ Labour Profile: The Paired t-test
Analysis……………………………………………………………
6.3 Extent of Rural Women’s Empowerment………………...……………....
6.3.1 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Economic Contribution to
the Household………………………………………………….…..
6.3.1.1 Variability of Rural Women’s Economic Contribution to
the Household……………………………………………..
6.3.1.2 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Economic
Contribution to the Household……………………………
6.3.2 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Access to Resources……....
6.3.2.1 Variability of Rural Women’s Access to Resources……...
6.3.2.2 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Access to Resources..
6.3.3 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Asset Ownership…………..
6.3.3.1 Variability of Rural Women’s Asset Ownership……….…
6.3.3.2 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Asset Ownership…...
6.3.4 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Participation in Household
Decision-making…………………………………………………..
6.3.4.1 Variability of Rural Women’s Participation in Household
Decision-making………………………………………….
6.3.4.2 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Participation in
Household Decision-making……………………………..
6.3.5 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Perception of Gender
Awareness………….……………………………………………...
6.3.5.1 Variability of Rural Women’s Perception of Gender
Awareness…………………………………………………
6.3.5.2 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Perception of Gender
Awareness….……………………………………………..
6.3.6 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Capacity to Cope with
Household Shocks………………………………………………....
6.3.6.1 Risks Encountered by Rural Women……………………...
6.3.6.2 Rural Women’s Household Coping Strategies……………
6.3.6.3 Variability of Rural Women’s Coping Capacity to
Household Shocks………………………………………...
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11. TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
6.3.6.4 Factors Influencing the Capacity of Rural Women to
Cope with Household Shocks……………………….…….
6.3.7 Current Status of Rural Women’s Empowerment…………………
6.3.7.1 Levels of Rural Women’s Empowerment...……………....
6.3.7.2 Village-wise Standing of Rural Women’s Empowerment..
6.3.7.3 Status of Rural Women’s Empowerment according to
Household Income………………………………………...
6.3.8 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Cumulative Empowerment
Index (CEI)……………………….……………………………..…
6.3.8.1 Spearman’s Rank Correlation Analysis…………………...
6.3.8.2 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis……………………..
6.4 Problems Encountered by Rural Women in Achieving Empowerment….
6.5 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………..
7 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY
IMPLICATIONS……………………………………………………………...
7.1 Summary and Conclusions of the Study……………………………….…
7.1.1 Demographic Profile of Rural Household ………………………...
7.1.2 Education and Economic Profiles of Rural Household……………
7.1.3 Rural Women’s Social Exposure and Aspirations………………...
7.1.4 Rural Women and Social Vices……………………………………
7.1.5 Perceived Social Status and Multiple Roles of Rural Women….....
7.1.6 Rural Women’s Socio-economic Empowerment…………….……
7.1.7 Rural Women’s Power in Household Decision-making…………..
7.1.8 Rural Women’s Psychological Empowerment………………….…
7.1.9 Rural Women’s Empowerment: A Summary………………….….
7.1.10Factors Affecting Rural Women’s Empowerment………………...
7.1.11Trends and Perceptions of Rural Women’s Empowerment……….
7.2 Policy Implications…………...…………………………………………..
7.2.1 Consolidated Strategies for Promoting Women’s Empowerment...
7.2.2 Suggestions and Directions for Future Studies …………………...
DEUTSCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNG (SUMMARY IN GERMAN)………......
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………...
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………
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12. TABLE OF CONTENTSviii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.0 Gender Related Development Indicators in South Asia, 2002… 3
Table 2.1 Number of Teachers and Students in Colleges and Universities
of Bangladesh, 1997…………………………………………… 22
Table 2.2 Classified Labour Force Participation Rate in Bangladesh,
1995-96………………………………………………………… 30
Table 2.3 Incidence of Poverty by Sex of Head of Household in
Bangladesh, 2000……………………………………………… 31
Table 2.4 Proportion of Seats Held by Women in National Parliament in
Bangladesh, 1973-2001……………………………………….. 34
Table 2.5 Profile of Incidence of Violence against Women in
Bangladesh, 1997-2004……………………………………….. 37
Table 3.1 Differences between Sex and Gender…………………………. 47
Table 3.2 Comparative Appraisal of Practical Gender Needs and
Strategic Gender Needs……………………………………….. 51
Table 3.3 Differentiation between WID and GAD Approach……………. 53
Table 3.4 Forms of Power and its Practical Implications………………… 54
Table 3.5 Dimensions and Indicators of Women’s Empowerment in the
Household Arena………………………………………………. 57
Table 3.6 Key Features of Chen and Mahmud’s Empowerment
Framework…………………………………………………….. 59
Table 3.7 Review of Empirical Studies on Women’s Empowerment……. 62
Table 4.1 Comparative Features of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Approaches………………………………………….. 68
Table 4.2 Purposes of Application of Qualitative Tools on different
Target Groups…………………………………………………. 73
Table 4.3 Major Criteria of the Study Villages…………………………... 76
Table 4.4 Validity Measures of the Research Instruments………………. 85
Table 4.5 Internal Consistency and Test-Retest Reliability of Rural
Women’s Empowerment Constructs (n = 24)…………………. 86
Table 4.6 Rural Women’s Cumulative Empowerment Index Integrating
both Quantitative and Qualitative Data…….. 95
Table 5.1 Percentage Distribution of Rural Women’s Household Profile,
2002-2003 (n = 156)………………………………………….. 100
Table 5.2 Paired Comparison between Rural Wives and their Husbands
based on their Level of Formal Education, 2002-2003 (n=156) 102
Table 5.3 Pair-wise Distribution of Formal Educational Level of Rural
Spouses, 2002-2003…………………………………………... 103
Table 5.4 Variation of Formal Educational Level of Rural Spouses
according to Farm Households, 2002 –2003…………………. 103

13. TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
Table 5.5 Pair-wise Distribution of Non-formal Educational level of
Rural Spouses, 2002-2003…………………………………….. 104
Table 5.6 Distribution of Rural Households based on their Homestead
area, 2002-2003……………………………………………….. 105
Table 5.7 Distribution of Rural Households based on their Family Farm
Size, 2002-2003……………………………………………….. 106
Table 5.8 Annual Income of Rural Households, 2002…………………… 106
Table 5.9 Total Farm Income of Rural Households, 2002………………. 107
Table 5.10 Distribution of Rural Households based on their Total Income,
2002…………………………………………………………… 108
Table 5.11 Distribution of Rural Households based on Per Capita Income,
2002……………………………………………………………. 109
Table 5.12 Distribution of Rural Households according to their Savings
Behaviour, 2002……………………………………………….. 109
Table 5.13 Savings Behaviour of Rural Households, 2002……………….. 110
Table 5.14 Exposure of Rural Women to Information Media, 2002-2003... 111
Table 5.15 Rural Women’s Empowerment from 1992 to 2002 as Revealed
through Trend Analysis……………….……………………….. 118
Table 5.16 Expert Views of Community Leaders regarding Women’s
Empowerment, 2002-2003……………………………………. 120
Table 6.1 Status of Rural Women in the Community as Perceived by
Respondents (n = 156)…………………………………………. 124
Table 6.2 Social Status of Rural Women in Comparison to Men, 2002-
2003 (based on FGDs, n = 84)………………………………… 125
Table 6.3 Gender Involvement in Productive Activities, 2002-2003……. 127
Table 6.4 Gender Involvement in Reproductive Activities, 2002-2003…. 129
Table 6.5 Gender Involvement in Community Managing Activities,
2002-2003……………………………………………………… 130
Table 6.6 Paired Comparison of Labour Involvement in Reproductive,
Productive and Community Managing Activities between
Rural Wives and their Husbands, 2002-2003 (n = 156)………. 132
Table 6.7 Variation of Rural Women’s Economic Contribution according
to Farm Households, 2002-2003………………………………. 134
Table 6.8 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Economic Contribution to
the Household, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………. 136
Table 6.9 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Access to Resources,
2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………………………… 136
Table 6.10 Variation of Rural Women’s Access to Resources according to
Farm Households, 2002-2003…………………………………. 139
Table 6.11 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Access to Resources,
2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………………………… 140

14. TABLE OF CONTENTSx
Table 6.12 Variation of Rural Women’s Asset Ownership (in ‘000’ Taka)
according to Farm Households, 2002-2003…………………… 142
Table 6.13 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Asset Ownership, 2002-
2003 (n = 156)…………………………………………………. 144
Table 6.14 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Participation in
Household Decision-making, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………… 145
Table 6.15 Rural Women’s Participation in Major Aspects of Household
Decision-making, 2002-2003………………………………….. 146
Table 6.16 Rural Women’s and Men’s Dominance in Different Aspects of
Household Decision-making, 2002-2003 (based on FGDs, n =
84)…………………………………………………………….. 147
Table 6.17 Variation of Rural Women’s Participation in Household
Decision-making according to Farm Households, 2002-2003.. 149
Table 6.18 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Participation in
Household Decision-making, 2002-2003 (n = 156)………….. 150
Table 6.19 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Perception of Gender
Awareness, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………….. 152
Table 6.20 Variation of Rural Women’s Perception of Gender Awareness
according to Farm Households, 2002-2003…….…………….. 157
Table 6.21 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Perception of Gender
Awareness, 2002-2003 (n = 156)……………………………. 158
Table 6.22 Types of Risky Events Experienced by Rural Women, 2002-
2003 (based on FGDs, n = 84)……………………………….. 160
Table 6.23 Nature and Extent of Coping Strategies Employed by Rural
Women to Mitigate Household Shocks, 2002-2003 (n = 156).. 162
Table 6.24 Nature and Extent of Rural Women’s Initiatives to Increase
Household Income, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………….. 167
Table 6.25 Variation of Rural Women’s Coping Capacity to Household
Shocks according to Farm Households, 2002-2003………….. 168
Table 6.26 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Coping Capacity to
Household Shocks (n = 156)…………………………………. 169
Table 6.27 Status of Rural Women’s Empowerment according to Village,
2002-2003…………………………………………………….. 171
Table 6.28 Status of Rural Women’s Empowerment according to
Household Income, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………….. 172
Table 6.29 Factors Influencing Rural Women’s Cumulative
Empowerment Index, 2002-2003 (n = 156)………………….. 173
Table 6.30 Influences of Socio-cultural Variables on Rural Women’s
Empowerment (Step-wise Multiple Regression), 2002-2003... 175
Table 6.31 Constraints in Achieving Rural Women’s Greater
Empowerment (n = 84)……….………………………………. 179

15. TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.0 The United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals………... 10
Figure 2.1 Gender Disparity in Adult Literacy in Bangladesh,
1980-2015……………………………………………………. 19
Figure 2.2 Gender Disparity in Urban and Rural Population in
Bangladesh, 1974-2000……………………………………….. 20
Figure 2.3 Gender-wise Percentage of Teachers in Government Primary
Schools in Bangladesh, 1990-2001…………………………… 21
Figure 2.4 Ratio of Girls to Boys in the Enrolment of Primary, Secondary
and Tertiary Educational Level in Bangladesh, 1990-2001…… 21
Figure 2.5 Gender Parity in Non-formal Education in terms of Enrolment
in Bangladesh, 1991-95………………………………………... 23
Figure 2.6 Approximate Death Rates per 1000 Population in Bangladesh,
1998……………………………………………………………. 25
Figure 2.7 Approximate Death Rates per 1000 Population in Bangladesh,
1975-2015……………………………………………………… 25
Figure 2.8 Maternal Mortality Ratio per 100,000 Lives Birth in
Bangladesh, 1995-2001………………………………………. 26
Figure 2.9 Estimated Total Fertility Rate per Woman in Bangladesh,
1995 to 2050…….……………………………………………..
26
Figure 2.10 Estimated Number of Population in Bangladesh, 1960-2050…. 27
Figure 2.11 Contraceptive Prevalence Rate in Bangladesh, 1999-2000…… 27
Figure 2.12 Percentage of Population with Sustainable Access to Improved
Water Source and Sanitation in Bangladesh, 2002……………. 28
Figure 2.13 Gender Inequality in Economic Activities in Bangladesh,
1995-2002……………………………………………………… 30
Figure 2.14 Average Monthly Income (Taka) per Household in
Bangladesh, 2000……………………………………………… 32
Figure 2.15 Gender-wise Distribution of Public Sector and Government
Employees by Service Categories in Bangladesh, 1997………. 33
Figure 2.16 Gender-wise Distribution of Class I Officers in the BCS
Cadres, 1999…………………………………………………… 33
Figure 3.1 Longwe’s Hierarchical Empowerment Framework…………… 59
Figure 3.2 Conceptual Framework of Rural Women’s Empowerment
Process Adopted in the Study…………………………………. 64
Figure 4.1 Mixed Methodological Framework for the Appraisal of Rural
Women’s Empowerment………………………………………. 72
Figure 4.2 Sampling Design and Methods of the Study………………….. 81
Figure 5.1 Comparison between Rural Women and Men based on their
Formal Educational Level, 2002-2003 (n = 156)……………… 102

16. TABLE OF CONTENTSxii
Figure 5.2 Comparison between Rural Women and Men based on their
Non-formal Educational Level, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………. 104
Figure 5.3 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Exposure to
Media, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………………... 111
Figure 5.4 Extent of Rural Women’s Spatial Mobility, 2002-2003………. 112
Figure 5.5 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Spatial Mobility,
2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………………………… 113
Figure 5.6 Percentages of Rural Women Affected by Traditional Socio-
cultural Practices, 2002-2003………………………………… 115
Figure 6.1 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Total Economic
Contribution to Household, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………….. 133
Figure 6.2 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Access to
Resources Index, 2002-2003 (n = 156)………………………... 139
Figure 6.3 Percentage Distribution of Rural Women based on their
Ownership of Different Assets, 2002-2003……………………. 141
Figure 6.4 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Asset Ownership
Index, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………….……………… 142
Figure 6.5 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Participation in
Household Decision-making Index, 2002-2003 (n = 156)…... 148
Figure 6.6 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Perception Index,
2002-2003 (n = 156)…………………………………………… 156
Figure 6.7 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Coping Capacity
Index, 2002-2003 (n = 156)……………………………………. 166
Figure 6.8 Distribution of Rural Women based on their Cumulative
Empowerment Index, 2002-2003 (n= 156)……………………. 170
Figure 6.9 Cause-Effect Relationship of Different Socio-economic and
Cultural Constraints Faced by Rural women (based on problem
tree analysis, n = 84)…………………………………………... 181
Figure 7.0 Proposed Strategic Framework for Promoting Rural Women’s
Empowerment ………………………………………………… 192
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1.0 Seven Strategic Priorities of MDG 3………………………… 11
Box 2.1 Promotional Steps Undertaken to Enhance Female Education
in Bangladesh………………………………………………….. 23
Box 2.2 Best Practices Adopted to Improve Maternal and Child Health
in Bangladesh………………………………………………….. 29
Box 2.3 Steps Taken to Improve Women’s Employment and Income
Status in Bangladesh…………………………………………... 32

17. TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii
Box 2.4 Measures Undertaken to Combat Violence against Women in
Bangladesh…………………………………………………….. 40
Box 3.1 WID Policy Approaches………………………………………. 52
Box 3.2 Main GAD Policy Approaches………………………………... 53
Box 3.3 Definitions of Women’s Empowerment…………………….… 55
Box 3.4 Features of Women’s Empowerment Process…………………. 56
Box 3.5 Strategies Suggested for Empowering Women……………….. 60
Box 5.1 Case Illustration of Spousal Age Difference, 2002-2003……... 99
Box 5.2 Case Illustrations of Media Exposure of Rural Women, 2002-
2003…………………………………………………………… 112
Box 5.3 Case Illustrations of Spatial Mobility of Rural Women, 2002-
2003…………………………………………………………… 114
Box 5.4 Case Illustrations of Rural Women Affected by Social Vices,
2002-2003……………………………………………………… 116
Box 5.5 Recorded Direct Observational Items, 2002-2003……………. 122
Box 6.1 Case Illustrations of Rural Women with Lower and Higher
Social Status, 2002 - 2003……………………………………... 126
Box 6.2 Direct Observations of the Daily Activities of Rural Women,
2002-2003……………………………………………………… 130
Box 6.3 Case Illustrations of Rural Women’s Economic Contribution
to the Household, 2002 - 2003………………………………… 135
Box 6.4 Case Illustrations of Rural Women’s Ownership of Assets,
2002 – 2003……………………………………………………. 143
Box 6.5 Case Illustrations of Rural Women’s Perception of Gender
Awareness, 2002 - 2003…………………………………….…. 157
Box 6.6 Case Illustrations of Coping Strategies Employed by Rural
Women in Farm Households, 2002 – 2003……………………. 168
ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bank
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ANON. Anonymous
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
AR Access to Resources
ASF Acid Survivors’ Foundation
ASK Ain-o-Salish Kendro
BAU Bangladesh Agricultural University
BAUEC Bangladesh Agricultural University Extension Centre

18. TABLE OF CONTENTSxiv
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
BCS Bangladesh Civil Service
BDHS Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey
BFRI Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute
BINA Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture
BINP Bangladesh Integrated Nutrition Project
BMP Bangladesh Mohila Parishad
BPFA Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
CBO Community-Based Organisation
CCHS Coping Capacity to Household Shocks
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women
CEI Cumulative Empowerment Index
CGE Commission on Gender Equality
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CORR Centre for Reproductive Rights
CPEP Compulsory Primary Education Programme
CPI Corruption Perception Index
CPR Contraceptive Prevalence Rate
CV Coefficient of Variation
DAE Department of Agricultural Extension
DAW Division for the Advancement of Women
DFID Department for International Development
DLS Department of Livestock Services
DOF Department of Fisheries
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FGD Focus Group Discussion
FSSAP Female Secondary School Assistance Project
GAD Gender And Development
GDI Gender Development Index
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEM Gender Empowerment Measure
GO Government Organisation
GOB Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh

19. TABLE OF CONTENTS xv
HDI Human Development Index
HFPP Health and Family Planning Programme
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HNPSP Health, Nutrition and Population Service Programme
HPI Human Poverty Index
HSC Higher Secondary Certificate
ICPD International Conference on Population and Development
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
ILO International Labour Organisation
IMR Infant Mortality Rate
INSTRAW International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of
Women
IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union
LEP Law Enforcement Personnel
LFS Labour Force Survey
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MHFW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
MMC Mass-line Media Centre
MMR Maternal Mortality Rate
MSW Ministry of Social Welfare
MWCA Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs
NCBP NGO Committee on Beijing Plus Five in Bangladesh
NCRFW National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women
NFE Non-Formal Education
NGO Non-Government Organisation
NRC Naripakka Research Cell
PEDP Primary Education Development Programme
PHDM Participation in Household Decision-Making
PGA Perception on Gender Awareness
PGN Practical Gender Need
PLAGE Policy Leadership and Advocacy for Gender Equality
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PRB Population Reference Bureau

20. TABLE OF CONTENTSxvi
PSC Public Service Commission
PVO Private Voluntary Organisation
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal
SAR South Asian Region
SARRC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SD Standard Deviation
SGN Strategic Gender Need
STW Shallow Tube Well
TLM Total Literacy Movement
TFR Total Fertility Rate
UH Upazila Headquarters
UGC University Grants Commission
UN United Nations
UP Union Parishad
UNAIDS United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VAW Violence Against Women
VGD Vulnerable Group Feeding
WC Ward Commissioners
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organisation
WID Women In Development
WO Women’s organisation

21. INTRODUCTION 1
1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter sets out to explore some of the concerns related to on-going
marginalisation of women worldwide with a special emphasis on South Asia. The
contribution of women to rural development and negligence of the male
dominated society in recognising it are also highlighted. The active role of the
international society in encouraging women’s advancement is outlined through a
discussion of the international conventions and treaties and their agenda. In the
milieu of this discourse, the specific problem statement of the investigation with
its objectives and hypotheses as well as special features and limitations are
presented.
1.1 Background of the Study
1.1.1 Women’s Marginalisation: The Global Picture
Although women constitute about one half of the world’s population, they are still
the poorest among the world’s 1.5 billion poor people. The fact that two thirds of
those living on less than one dollar per day are women (UNITED NATIONS, 2001)
is a clear indication of the magnitude of this issue. When different dimensions of
the poverty issue are considered, the incidence of income-poverty is the most
important, as a substantial gap exists between women and men. It has been
reported that even though women work 67 percent of the world’s earnings hours
(REEVES & BADEN, 2000), female earnings are around 70-80 percent those of
male earnings in both developed and developing countries (KABEER, 2003).
Nevertheless, this does not imply that women’s situations are better in other
dimensions like education, nutrition or health. Obviously, income-poverty is
linked to their unpaid work, as more than 60 percent of the women work in family
enterprises without pay (UNITED NATIONS, 2005a), which in turn leads to lower
educational levels and eventually to the downward spiral of poverty. Data on the
spatial distribution of illiteracy indicates that out of 876 million illiterate people
worldwide, two-thirds are women; many of them living in the rural areas of Sub-
Saharan Africa and South Asia (UNDP, 2003).
In agriculture-based countries in general, women toil in producing food but they
are discriminated against in consumption of it. In many parts of South Asia, for
example, men often consume twice as many calories as women despite the fact of
women’s heavy workload (WHO, 1997). Only 20-40 percent of all women of
childbearing age in the developing world receive the minimum caloric
requirement (2,200 calories) for a healthy and productive life (UNIFEM, 1995).

22. INTRODUCTION2
Exacerbating these conditions, women continue to have systematically poorer
command over a range of productive resources including land, education,
training, credit and information along with legal and property rights in relation to
those of men. As a result of weak land tenure rights, women’s access to inputs
like improved seed, fertiliser as well as credit and extension services is limited
(BROWN et al., 1995). It is estimated that women in Africa receive less than one
percent of the total credit available to agriculture. This is largely due to women’s
low ownership of land for use as collateral (UNDP, 1995).
Women’s lack of participation in socio-economic and political decision-making is
also critical despite the 30 percent quota set by the United Nations. According to
the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) statistics, the percentage of women in
parliaments around the world was 12.7 percent in 1998, with the highest
percentage (37.6%) existing in the Nordic countries, followed by the Americas
(15.5%), Asia (13.4%), Sub-Saharan Africa (11.6%) and the lowest (3.3%) in the
Arab states (KARAM, 1999).
In view of the facts stated above, there is an urgent need to provide an
environment conducive for the fulfilment of women’s potential in order to reduce
their level of vulnerability. It is a fact that the development of any nation can
hardly be achieved while half of its population is greatly underestimated. For
development in any nation, policies must encompass strategies that empower
women to rise above poverty. This will consequently lead to better families and
hence, a better society.
1.1.2 Women’s Marginalisation in South Asia: A brief Overview
Fundamental opportunities for education, health care and nutritious food are
partially or completely denied to women in the South Asian Region (SAR).
Women have little opportunity to participate in intra-household and societal
decision-making processes due to cultural and religious norms, discriminatory
laws as well as social structures that force women and children to be dependent on
men. South Asia has some of the world’s highest rates of maternal deaths, unsafe
abortions, child marriages, human trafficking and sexual violence (CORR, 2004).
It is estimated that over the time 60 million girls in South Asia have either died or
become maimed through sex-selective abortion, infanticide and negligence
(UNFPA, 2003). This area hosts 44 percent illiterate women (EBERLEE, 2001).
Across the region, violence against women (VAW) is prevalent at household,
community, society and state levels because of the social customs and attitudes
supporting such atrocities (OXFAM, 2004). It is a great concern that Bangladesh
ranks second in the world in VAW, with 47 percent of the women being assaulted

23. INTRODUCTION 3
by men. In the case of atrocities against women, Papua New Guinea tops with 67
percent and India occupies third position with 40 percent (MAHMOOD, 2004).
Trafficking of women and girls is also rampant in this region despite efforts taken
by the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SARRC) in 2002 to
combat it. Moreover, an increasing rate of HIV/AIDS infection has emerged as a
major development challenge in the region particularly in Pakistan, Nepal and
India. Thus, gender disparities in the SAR are severe compared to other parts of
the world (WORLD BANK, 2001). Table 1.0 shows that the South Asian countries
possess lower ranks in the world considering major socio-economic indicators
related to gender equality.
Table 1.0: Gender Related Development Indicators in South Asia, 2002
Lifeexpectancy
(years)
Adultliteracy
rate(%)
Country
HDIrank(177countries)
GDIrank(144countries)
GEMrank(78countries)
HP-1rank(95countries)
GDPpercapitavalue
(PPPUS$)
Male
Female
Male
Female
Bangladesh
138
(0.509)
110
(0.499)
76
(0.218)
72
(42.2%)
1,700 60.7 61.5 50.3 31.4
India
127
(0.595)
103
(0.572)
-
48
(31.4%)
2,670 63.1 64.4 69.0 46.4
Pakistan
142
(0.497)
120
(0.471)
64
(0.416)
71
(41.9%)
1,940 61.0 60.7 53.4 28.5
Nepal
140
(0.504)
116
(0.484)
-
69
(41.2%)
1,370 59.9 59.4 61.6 26.4
Bhutan
134
(0.536)
- - - 1,969 61.8 64.3 61.0 34.0
Maldives
84
(0.752)
- -
17
(11.4%)
4,798 67.7 66.8 97.3 97.2
Sri Lanka
96
(0.740)
73
(0.738)
74
(0.276)
36
(18.2%)
3,570 69.8 75.8 94.7 89.6
Source: UNDP, 2004
Figures in the parentheses indicate index values of the indicators
Note: ‘-’ means data were not available

24. INTRODUCTION4
Bangladesh is ranked 138th
in the ‘UNDP Human Development Report 2004’,
with a Human Development Index (HDI)1
value of 0.509. The Maldives rank 84th
,
with a value of 0.752. In the SAR, the Maldives rank first with the highest GDP
(Gross Domestic Product) per capita (PPP US$ 4,798) as well as male and female
literacy rates. Conversely, Nepal is the least performer in this region with the rank
of 140 in HDI. It also has the lowest GDP per capita (PPP US$ 1,370) as well as
life expectancy and female literacy rate (Table 1.0).
The Gender Development Index (GDI)2
value for Bangladesh is 0.499 and it is
ranked 110 in the world. Sri Lanka ranks 73 in the world, with a value of 0.738
but performs the best in the SAR, as she claims the highest life expectancy and
adult literacy rates for both male and female (Table 1.0).
Women’s political representation is very poor in South Asia as a whole, as only 7
percent of the South Asian parliamentarians are women (EBERLEE, 2001). The
Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)3
reveals that Bangladesh ranks 76th
, with
a value of 0.218. In Bangladesh, women hold two percent of the parliamentary
seats and make up eight percent of the administrators and managers and 25
percent of the professional and technical workers (UNDP, 2004). Pakistan
performs the best in terms of GEM in the SAR. In the world, it ranks 64th
, with a
value of 0.416 (Table 1.0).
The human poverty index (HPI)4
for Bangladesh shows that it has the worst
performance in the SAR - the most deprived in multiple dimensions of poverty. It
1
The HDI measures the average progress of a country in human development focusing on three
dimensions: life expectancy, education and standard of living (UNDP, 2004).
2
The GDI measures achievements in the same basic dimensions as in HDI, but takes egalitarian
perspectives in achievements of women and men into account. The GDI methodology imposes
a penalty for inequality. The greater the gender disparity in basic human development, the
lower is a country’s GDI relative to HDI. Norway, Sweden and Australia occupies rank 1, 2 and
3 in the world, respectively in both HDI and GDI while Sierra Leone ranks the lowest position
among 177 countries in HDI and Niger occupies the last position (144th
) in GDI (UNDP, 2004).
3
The GEM is a composite index measuring gender inequality in three basic dimensions of
empowerment - economic participation and decision-making, political participation and
decision-making and power over economic resources. The index values of GEM range from 0
to 1 - the lower the value, the greater the gender disparity. Women in Europe are highly
empowered as Norway, Sweden and Denmark occupies the top ranks in GEM while Saudi
Arabia and Yemen are ranked 77th
and 78th
, respectively at the bottom levels (UNDP, 2004).
4
The HPI focuses on the proportion of people below a threshold level in basic dimensions of
human development - living a long and healthy life, having access to education and a decent
standard of living. The HPI-1 measures human poverty in developing countries. Barbados
claims the lowest poverty while Burkina Faso is the highest according to HPI-1 measure (UNDP,
2004).

25. INTRODUCTION 5
ranks 72nd
, with a HPI value of 42.2 percent. The Maldives, on the other hand, the
best performer in the SAR, ranks 17th
in the world, with a HPI value of 11.4
percent. It is worthy to mention that the SAR has the largest number of people
(44% of the world’s poor or approximately 522 million) who are living on an
income of less than one dollar per day (SETH, 2003).
Another disturbing fact is the high level of ‘corruption’ in the South Asian
countries. According to a survey by ‘Transparency International’ (a Berlin based
organisation), law enforcement is generally perceived to be the most corrupted
sector in this region. The magnitude of corruption at all levels of society
perpetuates poverty, as economic systems function inefficiently due to
unfavourable conditions. Bangladesh is the most corrupted country in the world.
Since 2001, it has a corruption perception index (CPI)5
of less than 2.0
(TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL, 2004).
Therefore, women in South Asia are becoming an extremely vulnerable group due
to the high levels of illiteracy, low ownership of assets (as inheritance laws are
often male oriented), less opportunities to work outside the home, limited physical
movement, low social status and socially constructed dependency on male
relatives (ARIYABANDU, 2000).
1.1.3 Women’s Contribution to Rural Development: A Summary
Women are the major agricultural producers and natural resource managers,
responsible for half of the world’s food production (FAO, 1998), ensuring food
security and nutritional status of their households (BROWN et al., 1995). In
developing countries, they produce more than 55 percent of the food grown and
constitute 67 percent of the agricultural labour force (UNITED NATIONS, 1997).
Their efforts account for food production to the scale of 80-90 percent in Sub-
Saharan Africa; 50-60 percent in Asia; 45 percent in the Caribbean and over 30
percent in Latin America (UNFPA, 1996). In the Pacific region, unlike in the other
regions mentioned, women play a dominant role in production of labour-intensive
cash crops, such as palm oil, vanilla and cocoa. It is, however, difficult to draw a
clear line between cash crops and food crops in terms of involvement of women,
as their contribution to production of rice, tea, rubber and fruit are significant in
both South and Southeast Asia (FAO, 1998).
5
The CPI defines corruption as the abuse of public office for private gain and measures the
degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among a country’s public officials and
politicians. The scores range from 10 (squeaky clean) to zero (highly corrupt). The world’s least
corrupt country is Finland and its most corrupt countries are Bangladesh and Haiti in 2004.

26. INTRODUCTION6
Women toil for long hours in accomplishing such activities like sowing,
transplanting, fertilising, weeding, pest control, harvesting, threshing and
winnowing, cleaning, sorting, bagging, storage and food processing. It is
estimated that on average, women spend 10 hours a day performing various
household and farming chores (FAO, 1995).
In addition to staple food production in the fields, women perform the bulk of
household chores to ensure the smooth functioning of their households. For
example, women spend up to five hours a day collecting fuel wood to meet the
energy needs of the family. In underdeveloped and developing regions of the
world, they may spend a similar amount of time in fetching water and preparing
food (BROWN et al., 1995).
Besides this, they grow a wide variety of vegetables, fruits, spices and medicinal
plants in their home gardens in order to supply essential nutrients for the family
and meet up food deficiency during the lean seasons. Rural women play an active
role in biodiversity conservation and environmental protection as they rely more
on natural resources. They are the keepers of traditional knowledge and preservers
of local species (FAO, 1998).
Women’s role in livestock and poultry production is commendable, as they are
involved in activities like feeding and watering livestock, fodder collection,
cleaning stables, caring for the sick, pregnant and lactating animals, milking,
collecting of dung to meet fuel and manure needs (FAO, 1995). Women in South
Asia shoulder the responsibility of looking after their livestock along with other
farming responsibilities. For example, 60-80 percent of the livestock management
is undertaken by women in Pakistan while in Nepal, women are responsible for
fodder collection (FAO, 1998).
Although their contribution is less substantial in fisheries compared to crop and
livestock production, women are engaged in a wide range of activities in the
fisheries sector, particularly in the processing activities. In many parts of the
world, women are involved in marketing fish as well as weaving fishing nets.
In addition to farm activities, rural women contribute considerably to household
income through non-farm activities. They are found to be successful in small
businesses and self-employment activities like sewing, embroidery, weaving and
knitting, cheese-making, processing of fruit and vegetables and medicinal plants,
bee-keeping, sericulture, basketry, stone quarrying and polishing, moulding
plastic products etc.
These roles as well as their nursing, caring and reproductive responsibilities in the
household are undervalued or unrecognised economically, which result in under

27. INTRODUCTION 7
representation of the efforts of women in the nation’s or world’s economy. It is
disheartening that in spite of the vital role played by rural women in agriculture
and rural development, they remain as the most disadvantaged in the society. This
calls for a thorough policy change and concerted efforts from the international as
well as domestic societies to improve the situation of women.
1.1.4 International Conventions and Treaties for Women’s Rights
The United Nations (UN) has been at the centre of a growing global movement
for women’s privileges by adopting international laws and treaties on women’s
rights since October 1945, when the UN was formally set up. The UN established
the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in 1946, which advocates
for the improvement of the status of women of the world and for their equality to
men. Some of the important treaties in the past include: the Convention on the
Political Rights of Women (1952), the Convention on the Nationality of Married
Women (1957) and the Convention on the Consent to Marriage (1962). The UN
declared 1975-1985 a Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace to
stimulate public awareness of women’s issues and take up plans of action to
improve the status of women. The General Assembly of the UN identified three
key objectives in this regard: full gender equality and the elimination of gender
discrimination; integration and full participation of women in development; and
increased contribution by women in the strengthening of world peace (UNITED
NATIONS, 2000). Some important features of the major world conferences on
women, convened by the UN and other agencies, are briefly reviewed below in a
chronological order:
1.1.4.1 First World Conference on Women, 1975
The first world conference was convened in Mexico City to coincide with the
1975 International Women’s Year for the purpose of focusing international
attention on the need to develop future oriented goals, effective strategies and
plans of action for the advancement of women. In this Conference, a World Plan
of Action, a document that offered guidelines for governments and the
international community to follow for the next ten years in pursuit of the three
abovementioned key objectives set by the General Assembly was adopted. This
Conference led to the establishment of the International Research and Training
Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) and the United Nations
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) in 1976 to provide the institutional
framework for research, training and operational activities in the area of women
and development.

28. INTRODUCTION8
1.1.4.2 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW), 1979
Women’s issues were further strengthened in 1979 by adopting the CEDAW by
the General Assembly of the UN. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, the
CEDAW is often described as an international bill of rights for women; one of the
most powerful instruments for women’s equality defines the discrimination
against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such
discrimination. It supports the full development and advancement of women in all
spheres - political, educational, employment, health care, marriage and family
relation, economic, social and legal. It also calls for the modification of social and
cultural patterns of conduct in order to eliminate prejudices, customs and all other
practices based on the idea of inferiority or superiority of both sexes (UNITED
NATIONS, 1995a).
1.1.4.3 Second World Conference on Women, 1980
In July 1980, the second World Conference on Women was convened in
Copenhagen, Denmark to review and appraise the 1975 World Plan of Action.
Despite the progress made, this conference recognised that the disparities between
rights secured and women’s ability to exercise these rights were widening. To
address these concerns, the Copenhagen Programme of Action called for stronger
national measures to ensure women’s ownership and control of property as well
as improvements in women’s rights to inheritance, child custody and loss of
nationality and urged an end to stereotyped attitudes towards women (UNITED
NATIONS, 2000).
1.1.4.4 Third World Conference on Women, 1985
In 1985, the UN convened a third conference on women in Nairobi, Kenya to
evaluate the achievements made over the decade. The Strategies for the
Advancement of Women until the Year 2000 were agreed upon. A consensus was
also reached, based on the objectives laid out for the Decade for Women, in order
to provide a framework for action that would promote greater equality and
opportunity for women.
1.1.4.5 Summit on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women, 1992
Recognising rural women as full partners in the development process, the Summit
on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women took place in Geneva,
Switzerland in February 1992. It was convened by the International Fund for

29. INTRODUCTION 9
Agricultural Development (IFAD). The representatives of the heads of
State/Government were urged to work for the achievement of the goals endorsed
in the Geneva Declaration for rural women paying special attention to both their
practical and strategic needs, such as integrating the concerns of rural women into
national development policies and programmes, increasing rural women’s
participation in the decision-making process, enhancing their accessibility to
productive resources and improving their human resources, particularly through
health and literacy programmes (UNITED NATIONS, 1992).
1.1.4.6 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), 1994
The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), convened
under the auspices of the United Nations, took place in Cairo, Egypt in September
1994. The central elements of the conference were reproductive and sexual health,
the rights of women, free choice, gender equality and the empowerment of
women. These were identified as the keys to smaller families and declining
population growth (ICPD, 1994).
1.1.3.7 Fourth World Conference on Women, 1995
The Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing, China in September
1995 was the largest and most influential of all the World Conferences on
Women. Its main objectives were equality, development and peace. Nearly 184
government delegations and 2,500 NGOs made significant commitments to secure
women’s human rights and to eliminate discrimination and violence from
women’s public and private lives. The outcome of the Conference ‘the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action (BPFA)’ is an agenda for women’s
empowerment and gender equality focusing on 12 critical areas of concern, out of
which poverty, education and training, health, decision-making and legal reforms
are the major ones. The summit aimed at achieving the ultimate goal of
eliminating all forms of discrimination against women in both public and private
life (UNITED NATIONS, 1997). In recognition of the crucial role of women in food
production and food security, the idea of celebrating the World Rural Women’s
Day on 15 October (the day before the World Food Day) each year was also
emerged from the Beijing Conference.
1.1.3.8 World Food Summit, 1996
The World Food Summit, organised by the FAO, was held in Rome, Italy in
November 1996. This summit acknowledged the fundamental contribution of

30. INTRODUCTION10
women, particularly in developing countries, to food security. The delegates of
the summit agreed to ensure the empowerment of rural women by providing equal
gender opportunities.
1.1.3.9 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2000
In September 2000, 189 governments of both developed and developing countries
jointly agreed with a set of Millennium Declarations, which are known as the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), to tackle a range of global problems.
They pledged to meet these goals, which mainly outline income poverty, human
development, gender equality, environmental sustainability and global partnership
by the year 2015 (Figure 1.0).
Figure 1.0: The United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals
Source: KABBER (2003)
The Declaration recognises the need to promote gender equality and the
empowerment of women (Goal 3) as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger
and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable. The MDGs are
intended to advance progress on some of the 12 critical areas identified by the
The Millennium Development Goals
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

31. INTRODUCTION 11
Beijing Platform for Action and also support the goals of the CEDAW and the
other international conventions and treaties that guarantee the rights of women
and girls (WORLD BANK, 2003). The UN Millennium Project Task Force on
Education and Gender Equality, which was commissioned by the UN Secretary
General in 2002 to develop a practical plan of action for enabling developing
countries to meet the MDGs, has outlined seven interdependent strategic priorities
with regard to Goal 3 (Box 1.0) that can be applied in any setting in order to alter
the historical legacy of disadvantages against women by taking necessary action.
Box 1.0: Seven Strategic Priorities of MDG 3
- Strengthen opportunities for post-primary education for girls while simultaneously
meeting commitments to universal primary education
- Guarantee sexual and reproductive health and rights
- Invest in infrastructure to reduce women and girls’ time burdens
- Guarantee women and girls’ property and inheritance rights
- Eliminate gender inequality in employment by decreasing women’s reliance on informal
employment, closing gender gaps in earnings and reducing occupational segregation
- Increase women’s share of seats in national parliaments and local governmental bodies
- Combat violence against girls and women
Source: Adapted from GROWN et al. (2005)
The year 2005 marks the 30th anniversary of the First World Conference on
Women held in 1975. It is the 10th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration and
Platform for Action and the 5th anniversary of the MDGs.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
The empowerment of women is an essential precondition for the elimination of
world poverty and the upholding of human rights (DFID, 2000), in particular at the
individual level, as it helps to build a base for social change. Equality for women
in Bangladesh is limited only to their share in population6
. Their status has been
ranked the lowest in the world on the basis of twenty indicators related to health,
marriage, children, education, employment and social equality (NCBP, 2000).
Historically they are socially oppressed, legally ignored, politically exploited and
technologically deprived and are subordinated as a production unit for bearing
and rearing children (AHMAD, 2001). It is a well-established fact that in a
patriarchal society like Bangladesh, women are ascribed as being of lower status
6
Female population in Bangladesh constitutes 74.4 million (PRB, 2005), which represents
approximately 48.6% of the total population of 149.7 million. About 88% of the total
population belongs to Islam religion and 76% live in rural areas (CIDA, 2005).

32. INTRODUCTION12
compared to men. Men hold the sovereign power to control households and
society as a whole while women are often secluded in their homes (BALK, 1997).
About 80% of the women live in rural areas of Bangladesh (BBS, 2001), where
majority of them play a major role in the following areas: (a) seed production and
management and in conservation of biological diversity, (b) energy management,
(c) crop/livestock/fish management, (d) post-harvest management including the
utilisation of forest products, (e) management of home-garden and (f) family
management (ANON., 1995). Even though the economic contribution of rural
women is substantial, it is largely unacknowledged. In addition to their productive
work, the traditional division of labour gives women the primary responsibility
for such domestic chores as cleaning, cooking, childcare, fetching water and so
on. Women’s limited access to markets, economic services, education, health care
and politics leads to a lower well-being of the family that retards the
developmental goals of the state and traumatise women.
It is expected that the participation of rural women in the development process
could contribute significantly to a balanced socio-economic growth and
development of the country. Unfortunately, existing societal opportunity
structures have hindered their participation in the mainstream process of
development. To fulfil their expected role adequately, they need to be empowered
in terms of information, knowledge and skills, access to resources and through the
influence of mass media to have a positive view of themselves. Thus, rural
women should not be seen in isolation or be an invisible entity anymore.
Endeavours by the intervening agencies to support women to fight against
inequality and injustice in the traditional society must be placed in the social and
economic framework in order to attain sustainable development. Hence, this
research focuses on the situation of rural women, examines their level of
empowerment and the persisting constraints challenging rural women’s progress
in order to formulate suitable strategic measures for their advancement.
The following research questions on empowerment of rural women in Bangladesh
were framed:
(1) What do the rural women think about their present status in the household as
well as the community?
(2) How well are rural women represented in the gender division of labour in the
household?
(3) What factors influence and determine the nature and extent of rural women’s
empowerment?

33. INTRODUCTION 13
(4) What are the problems hindering rural women’s empowerment? and
(5) How can a viable strategy for promoting the empowerment status of rural
women be developed?
1.3 Objectives and Hypotheses of the Study
1.3.1 Objectives of the Study
In view of the aforesaid queries, the following objectives were formulated:
(1) To assess the perceived status of rural women;
(2) To analyse the gender division of labour at household level;
(3) To analyse and determine the nature and extent of rural women’s
empowerment and factors influencing it;
(4) To identify existing socio-economic and cultural constraints hindering rural
women’s empowerment; and
(5) To develop a viable strategic framework for promoting the status of rural
women’s empowerment.
1.3.2 Hypotheses of the Study
Generally hypothesis means an assumption or some supposition to be proved or
disproved. Hypotheses are divided into two main categories: 1) research
hypotheses (H1) and 2) null hypotheses (H0). An investigator first formulates
research hypotheses to find out anticipated relationships between variables. On
the contrary, it becomes necessary for a researcher to formulate null hypotheses
while performing any statistical test. Hence, taking the research objectives into
account, the following hypotheses were drawn and tested by suitable statistical
tools:
(1) Rural women are more involved in reproductive activities than in productive
and community managing activities compared to their husbands.
a) Rural women are more involved in reproductive activities than their
husbands (Ha1). The null hypothesis (Ho1) is µdifference = 0 i.e. there is no
mean difference between rural wives and husbands’ involvement in
reproductive activities.

34. INTRODUCTION14
b) Rural women are less involved in productive activities than their
husbands (Ha2). The null hypothesis (Ho2) is µdifference = 0 i.e. there is no
mean difference between rural wives and husbands’ involvement in
productive activities.
c) Rural women are less involved in community managing activities than
their husbands (Ha3). The null hypothesis (Ho3) is µdifference = 0 i.e. there
is no mean difference between rural wives and husbands’ involvement in
community managing activities.
(2) Education, son preference, media exposure and spatial mobility influence
rural women’s empowerment positively while spousal alienation influences it
negatively (Ha). The null hypothesis (Ho) is that socio-cultural factors do not
have any influence on rural women’s empowerment.
(3) The empowerment of rural women differs with developmental status of the
villages (Ha). The null hypothesis (Ho) is µ = 0 i.e. there is no significant
difference of rural women’s empowerment level based on developmental
status of the villages.
(4) The empowerment of rural women varies with income level of the household
(Ha). The null hypothesis (Ho) is µ = 0 i.e. there is no significant difference of
rural women’s empowerment level based on the household income.
(5) Traditional socio-cultural practices curb rural women’s empowerment.
1.3 Special Features of the Study
The present study can claim significance in the context of Bangladesh, as well as
elsewhere, as it is an attempt to highlight the marginalisation of rural women at
household level, which is not adequately addressed in literature. It intends to alter
the policy perspectives based on the prevalent notions that the backward rural
women are unable to get benefit from the existing set of socio-economic and
political arrangements unless intervened by the developmental agencies. Some of
the significant features related to methodology and implication are noted below:
• Empowerment has been measured directly in this study, not as an outcome
indicator (e.g. micro-credit reduces fertility), which has been the way most
previous studies were conducted.
• This study includes the psychological dimension of empowerment to
strengthen the intrinsic power of women, which has rarely been
operationalised in earlier empirical studies. This may ultimately result in

35. INTRODUCTION 15
increased accommodation of women’s needs, less conflicts with husband’s
career and greater interaction with other family members. Consequently, it
may offer supportive policies that might create more cooperative family
and work responsibilities.
• A mixed-method research design has been applied in this study, combining
both qualitative and quantitative data, covering a wide range of indicators,
scales and measures of validation intended to increase the understanding of
the multidimensional concept of empowerment.
• The findings of the research may prove helpful at policy and field levels for
both Governmental (GOs) and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).
In particular, the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), the
Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs (MWCA), the Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare (MHFW) and the Ministry of Social Welfare
(MSW) will benefit from formulation of effective strategies by the planners
and policy-makers for implementing gender-specific programmes to
promote the advancement of rural women.
• More notably, the research findings may help the extension workers of the
Bangladesh Agricultural University Extension Centre (BAUEC) in
improving their action plan and exposure to the field of gender awareness,
dissemination of knowledge and technology among the target groups in the
project areas.
1.4 Limitations of the Study
Due to the lack of previous empirical studies in the area of rural women’s
empowerment at micro level, a few limitations have been identified in relation to
this research, especially in methodology. They are as follows:
• This study is an intensive work on three villages of Mymensingh district in
Bangladesh. It may not be representative of the whole country as
empowerment is context-specific. Besides, Bangladesh society is very
diversified and divided into many sub-areas and segments. In order to have
a representative sample, more units have to be picked up. But in view of the
available time and resources, only four categories of farm households were
considered.
• Several methods, scales and statistical tests have been utilised in order to
measure women’s empowerment over a relatively short period of time.
Although these methods and measurements have received a great deal of

36. INTRODUCTION16
interest, there is still much debate amongst researchers as to how
empowerment can be measured effectively.
• The analysis of the study is based on cross-sectional data; it may not reveal
the dynamic process of empowerment that could be measured over time. To
explore relationships, nine characteristics (including conjugal age, formal
education, husbands’ formal education, non-formal education, having only
male children, spousal alienation, media exposure, spatial mobility and
traditional socio-cultural practices) of the rural women and their husbands
were selected.
• A large sample is more representative and provides more accurate
information. Due to limitations of time and other resources, it was not
possible to work with a big sample and only 156 rural women were selected
for the study from a population of 2896 farm families.
• The conceptual framework of the study stresses socio-economic
interventions paying special attention to the features of the locality. It may
not be applicable in all other areas.
• Some figures and boxes were self-explanatory and used for illustrative
purposes. Their interpretations were not provided in the same extent like
tables reporting empirical findings and their possible explanations.
1.5 Organisation of the Study
This study is structured in seven major chapters followed by the reference section.
At the end, an appendix section includes further information on some specific
issues used for the study. A brief outline of different chapters is as follows:
• Chapter 1 contains background information on women’s marginalisation,
women contribution to rural development, followed by international
conventions and treaties to upgrade the status of women. The statement of
the research problem investigated with its objectives, hypotheses, special
features and limitations are described in detail.
• Chapter 2 gives an overview of the extent of gender discrimination in fields
of education, health, employment, income, decision-making power as well
as lower status of women in Bangladesh as expressed in poverty, violence,
cultural barriers, discriminatory laws and their consequences. It also looks
at the various programmes and their achievements as well as the role of
different development organisations in promotion of women’s status.

37. INTRODUCTION 17
• Chapter 3 is devoted to explaining theoretical underpinnings of gender and
development. It provides the basic concepts and approaches that are
necessary to understanding gender issues and portrays the gradual evolution
in thinking on gender equality and development. It also attempts to review
the methodological approaches related to women’s empowerment. Based
on theories and empirical work available in literature, this chapter finally
sketches out a framework to conceptualise the interrelationship between
different dimensions of women’s empowerment at household level, factors
influencing it and pathways of interventions.
• Chapter 4 is concerned with methodological approach of the study,
sampling design and survey instruments, data collection methods and
procedures, description of study area, measurement techniques of variables
and data processing and analyses.
• Chapter 5 deals with empirical analyses and discussion of rural women’s
personal, socio-economic and cultural characteristics supported with case
studies. It also focuses on perception of community leaders on women’s
empowerment followed by direct observations by the researcher.
• Chapter 6 analyses and describes status of rural women in the community
and gender division of labour at household level. Six constructs of rural
women’s empowerment and their associated factors are presented. In
addition, case studies of particular respondents are used for detailed
information. This chapter concludes with a discussion on various
constraints that affect the level of women’s empowerment.
• Chapter 7, the final chapter, provides summary and conclusions based on
empirical findings and discussions. This chapter also offers a range of
suggestions to the government of Bangladesh in particular and to
developing countries in general for formulating an inclusive and equitable
strategy for rural women’s empowerment. It also furnishes some strategic
measures that can be taken in order to improve women’s empowerment
levels in the locality and finally, charts out the future research possibilities.

39. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW 19
2 SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN
OVERVIEW
The socio-economic status of women in Bangladesh with a special emphasis to
education, health, nutrition, sanitation, employment and poverty is discussed in
this chapter followed by women’s participation in power and decision-making for
national development. Different forms of violence against women are described
and the traditional cultural practices affecting women’s life are outlined. This is
followed by an exposition of women’s legal rights in theory and practice as well
as the mediating role of the development institutions with regard to women’s
development.
2.1 Socio-economic Status of Women
2.1.1 Education
In spite of the government’s policy to eliminate illiteracy from Bangladesh, a
large mass of the population remains illiterate even today. The adult literacy rate7
for 2002 was 41.1 percent, with 50.3 percent of the male population and 31.4
percent female being literate (UNDP, 2004). According to UNESCO (2003)
statistics, adult literacy rates have been increasing over the last two decades in
Bangladesh, even though there is a distinct gender gap in literacy. Moreover, the
UNESCO’s analysis shows that the gender gap will remain constant even up to
2015 (Figure 2.1).
40 42 44.3 46.8 49.4 51.7 53.6 55.7
38.335.633.130.2
26.9
23.720.4
17.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
Literacyrate(%)
Male Female
Figure 2.1: Gender Disparity in Adult Literacy in Bangladesh, 1980-2015
Source: UNESCO (2003)
7
Refers to the percentage of literate population of age 15 years and over to the population of
the same age (BHATTACHARJEE, 2003)

40. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW20
It is a matter of concern that about 38 percent of the families are still illiterate in
the country. This is aggravated by the fact that there exists a disparity between
urban and rural populations. In rural areas, 37.3% are literate compared to 63.6
percent in urban areas (The BHORER KAGOJ
8
, 8 September 2004). Figure 2.2
further illustrates the plight of women (especially rural women) compared to men.
This takes into consideration the increasing trend in literacy rate.
12 15 19 19 20
3335 35 40 40 42 49
33 34
51 51 53 5663 58
72 72 73 70
0
20
40
60
80
1974 1981 1987 1988 1991 2000
Year
Literacyrate(%)
Rural women Rural men Urban women Urban men
Figure 2.2: Gender Disparity in Urban and Rural Population in Bangladesh, 1974-2000
Source: ADB (2004)
2.1.1.1 Formal Education
There are three levels of formal education system in Bangladesh. Gender related
facts and figures at these three tiers are presented below:
a) Primary level education9
: Since the government launched the ‘Compulsory
Primary Education Programme (CPEP)’ in 1992, an impressive change has been
achieved in eliminating the gender gap at primary school level. Girl enrolment in
primary school improved from 46 percent to 50 percent (0.86 to 1.02) from 1990
to 2001, as shown in Figure 2.4. However, a 60 percent quota reserved for female
teachers in primary schools has not yet been fulfilled although the number of
female teachers has been increased from 20 percent in 1990 to 37 percent in 2001
(Figure 2.3).
8
National daily newspaper published in Bengali from Dhaka
9
Consists of five years of formal schooling (Grade I-V), which is compulsory and free for both
boys and girls

41. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW 21
0
20
40
60
80
100
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
%teachers
Male Female
Figure 2.3: Gender-wise Percentage of Teachers in Government Primary Schools in
Bangladesh, 1990-2001
Source: Primary Education in Bangladesh. Available at
http://scs.une.edu.au/StudentFiles/HomePages/312_1_04/ROY_web/Data.htm (searched date: 31
March 2005).
b) Secondary level education10
: From Figure 2.4, one can notice that there is a
leap in the enrolment of girls in secondary schools in the years 1990 to 2001. The
number of girl students in 1990 against 100 boys was 52 (34%) while this
increased to 110 (52%) in 2001.
0.86
1.01 1.02
1.1
0.2
0.5
0.97
0.52
0.96
1.05
0.540.51
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1990 1998 2000 2001
Year
Girlstoboysratio
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Figure 2.4: Ratio of Girls to Boys in the Enrolment of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary
Educational Level in Bangladesh, 1990-2001
Source: UNITED NATIONS (2005b)
The enrolment rates of girls have significantly increased due to financial
assistance provided by the developmental agencies aiming at retaining girls in
secondary education, enhancing their employment opportunities as primary
school teachers, extension workers, health and family planning workers, NGO
10
Consists of 7 years duration with 3 sub-levels: Junior Secondary Education (Grade VI-VIII),
Secondary Education (IX-X) and Higher Secondary Education (XI-XII)

42. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW22
workers and preventing early marriages. However, enrolment of girls in
secondary schools in rural areas is not satisfactory due to socio-economic and
cultural factors like early marriage, distance to school, lack of female teachers,
girls’ physical and moral safety concerns and inadequate sanitation.
c) Tertiary level education11
: A slower progress has been made (from 16% in
1990 to 33% enrolment in 2001) in eliminating gender parity at tertiary level
compared to primary and secondary levels, as depicted in Figure 2.4. The
percentages of female teachers and students are also substantially lower than that
of males at tertiary level educational institutions, particularly in technical
institutions (Table 2.1). It is necessary to emphasise here that the achievement of
tertiary level of education by the females has remained considerably lower in rural
areas because of prevailing economic, cultural and religious restrictions.
Table 2.1: Number of Teachers and Students in Colleges and Universities of Bangladesh,
1997
Number of teachers Number of students
Institutions
Total % Of female Total % Of female
Degree college 27511 17.4 1113149 29.3
Medical college 1475 18.9 11046 39.4
Dental college 86 22.1 525 38.9
Bangladesh Institute of
Technology
232 3.4 3246 4.7
Law college 407 2.2 32155 22.9
General university 301 12.3 10958 21.9
Agricultural university 396 4.3 4300 13.7
Engineering university 424 9.2 5062 11.3
Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS, 1999)
2.1.1.2 Non-Formal Education
Bangladesh has achieved a commendable success in non-formal education (NFE)
in three-delivery modes i.e. centre-based approach through NGOs, total literacy
movement (TLM) through district administration and through private voluntary
organisations (PVOs) and community-based organisations (CBOs). The NFE is
11
Tertiary education starts after passing higher secondary certificate (HSC) examination. It
comprises a 2-year for a Bachelor’s degree or 3 years for Bachelor (Honours) in liberal arts and
science, 4-5 year courses in Bachelors degrees in professional disciplines like agriculture,
engineering and medicine. Post-graduate courses leading to Ph.D. are also available in most of
the universities.

43. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW 23
designed for children, adolescents and adults in order to improve their
employment, productivity and social participation with a special emphasis on
females. A good number of NGOs are involved in the promotion of NFE. The
contribution of Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) - the largest
NGO in Bangladesh - is praiseworthy. In spite of notable achievements in
upgrading literacy through NFE programme, gender disparity still exists as
evident in Figure 2.5. Hence, the country needs a suitable transformation of non-
formal education in order to mitigate gender gaps in the long run.
32.4
44.3
36.9
50.4
25.45 28.5
0
20
40
60
1991 1995Year
%ofpopulation
Total Male Female
Figure 2.5: Gender Parity in Non-formal Education in terms of Enrolment in Bangladesh,
1991-95
Source: KHAN (2000)
There are numerous initiatives undertaken jointly by the GOs, NGOs and
international donors in intensifying female education in Bangladesh, with a
special emphasise on poor women and girls who are traditionally
underrepresented in formal education. Some of these initiatives are presented in
Box 2.1. More efforts should, however, be made to reduce the dropout rates in
schools and gender gap in education. This will in turn contribute to attainment of
the MDGs by 2015.
Box 2.1: Promotional Steps Undertaken to Enhance Female Education in Bangladesh
- ‘National Campaign for Social Mobilisation for Basic Education’ launched in 1992
underscores the importance of education for girls.
- Free education for girl students is offered up to higher secondary level and scholarships.
- ‘Food for Education’ programme for poor children to improve enrolment and class
attendance and reduce school dropout rate was started in 1993.
- ‘Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP)-II’ will be continued until June
2009 with emphasis on educating female children.

44. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW24
Box 2.1: Contd.
- ‘Female Secondary School Assistance Project (FSSAP)’ since 1993 aimed at nullifying
the gender gap in secondary education and raising female status in the economy and
society.
- ‘Social mobilisation campaign’ using multimedia techniques, including a cartoon series
called ‘Meena’ which highlights the importance of education for poor girls.
- Initiatives to overcome the shortage of female teachers in schools have been taken.
- Satellite schools for Class I and II since 1990 entirely run by the local communities offer
incentives to girls and poor children in primary school.
2.2.2 Health, Nutrition and Sanitation
2.2.2.1 General Health and Nutrition
Despite the remarkable improvements in the health sector of the country over the
last years, malnutrition rates among women and children are still the highest in
the world (WORLD BANK, 2004). More than 50 percent of the women suffer from
chronic energy deficiency that creates additional problems during pregnancy and
childbirth (The NEW NATION
12
, 21 February 2003). Approximately 70 percent
women of child bearing age experience anaemia caused by nutritional deficiency
and consequently, 45 percent of the new-borns suffer from low-birth weight
(RAHMAN et al., 2003). Over 43 percent of the pregnant women are found to be
deficient of iodine and more than 2.7 percent develop night blindness during
pregnancy (AL-KABIR, 2005). Vitamin-A deficiency is observed in a significant
proportion of poor and lactating women (AHMED et al., 2003). Furthermore, the
cases of death from mental illnesses and suicide are also high among women
compared to men (BBS, 1999). In combination with poor maternal health care,
children’s health status is also unacceptably poor. It is reported that about 52
percent of the children are undernourished and the incidence of severe
malnutrition among girls under five is 2-4 percent higher than that of boys of
same age (MILLENNIUM PROJECT, 2004).
More than 60 percent of the population have very limited access to basic
healthcare (MHFW, 2003). A recent survey found out that 60 percent of the health
service users prefer unqualified medical practitioners like local healers, 27 percent
use private medical practitioners and only 13 percent turn to government health
services (The BANGLADESH OBSERVER
13
, 8 April 2005). As a result, the death rate
12
National daily newspaper published in English from Dhaka
13
National daily newspaper published in English from Dhaka

45. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW 25
is approximately 9 per 1000 population (PRB, 2004), with a higher rate in rural
areas as shown in Figure 2.6.
4.8
4
5.45
3.8
5.9
4 3.6
5
0
2
4
6
8
National Urban Rural
Area
Deathrate
Both sex Male Female
Figure 2.6: Approximate Death Rates per 1000 Population in Bangladesh, 1998
Source: BBS (1999)
It is, however, projected that the death rate may fall to 7.0 by 2015 (Figure 2.7).
7.7
8.79.8
11.4
13.3
15.6
18.9
7
0
5
10
15
20
1975-80 1980-85 1985-90 1990-95 1995-2000 2000-05 2005-10 2010-15
Year
Deathrate
Figure 2.7: Approximate Death Rates per 1000 Population in Bangladesh, 1975-2015
Source: WHO (2002)
2.2.2.2 Reproductive and Sexual Health
Though the government and NGOs have taken various steps regarding
acceleration of the reproductive health programmes, the current scenarios of
maternal mortality rate (MMR), infant mortality rate (IMR) and total fertility rate
(TFR) are still at appalling states. The principal causes are low uptake of health
services by women, poor infrastructure, poor quality of maternal health care
services and women’s low social status in family and community. Various
superstitions including restriction in mobility, consumption of adequate food and
growth of the foetus are harm efforts to achieve healthy and safe motherhoods
(AL-KABIR, 2005).

46. SITUATION OF WOMEN IN BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW26
About 2.6 million deliveries occur every year in the country, of which the skilled
attendants (doctors, trained nurses/midwives) handle only 13 percent of the births;
almost 90 percent of the births occur at home, often in unsafe and unhygienic
conditions, generally assisted by traditional birth attendants or relatives (The
BANGLADESH OBSERVER, 24 November, 2004). It is reported that only 25 percent
of the pregnant women receive prenatal care and 18 percent of the mothers
receive postnatal care from trained personnel within six weeks after delivery (AL-
KABIR, 2005). Approximately 11-12 thousand mothers die every year due to
delivery related complications and about 14 percent of the total maternal deaths
are attributed to incidence of injuries and domestic violence (RAHMAN et al.,
2003; The BANGLADESH OBSERVER, 8 April 2005). Even though the current
MMR rate is very high at 3.0 per 1000 live births, there was a progressive
reduction during the period of 1995 to 2001 (Figure 2.8).
447
444
350
323
320
318
315
380
375
308
285
263
261
258
452
450
378
336
333
329
326
0
100
200
300
400
500
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Number
National Urban Rural
Figure 2.8: Maternal Mortality Ratio per 100,000 Lives Birth in Bangladesh, 1995-
2001
Source: BHATTACHARJEE (2003)
Due to continuous efforts of GO, NGOs and the development partners, there is a
steep decline of total fertility rate (TFR) in Bangladesh from 6.3 in 1975 to 3.0 in
2004. An increase in the contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) from 9.6 percent in
1975 to 58 percent in 2004 resulted in an appreciable decline in the fertility level
(BDHS, 2004). Figure 2.9 illustrates that the TFR will be declining to 2.5 by 2050.
2.52.52.62.72.72.82.9333.13.23.2
0
2
4
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Year
No.of
children/woman
Figure 2.9: Estimated Total Fertility Rate per Woman in Bangladesh, 1995 to 2050
Source: USAID (2004)