how to build motivation in students

2. A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
behavioral
• wanting or needing to obtain desirable consequences (rewards) or
escape/avoid undesirable consequences — anticipated or actual;
• wanting or needing something as elicited by classical conditioning
(bio-behavioral).
biological
• wanting or needing an increase or decrease in stimulation or arousal
in order to resolve boredom (under-stimulation) or reduce some form
of stress or tension (psycho-physiologically over-stimulation);
• wanting or needing to decrease hunger, thirst, pain, terror, sex drive,
etc., which also involves decreasing aversive internal physical
stimulation;
• wanting or needing to sleep, rest, or wake up;
• wanting or needing to have physical control of one’s body;
• wanting or needing to act on anger against others (bio-emotional-
social);
• wanting or needing to act on a psycho-physiological feeling of love for
someone, oneself, or other things such as animals, nature, and
religious beliefs (bio-social);
• wanting or needing to feel safe and secure (bio-emotional-social).
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt and available on his website. Used here with his written permission.

3. A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
cognitive
• wanting or needing to attend to something interesting, challenging,
promising, or threatening;
• wanting or needing to acquire knowledge or understanding;
• wanting or needing to decrease cognitive dissonance, inconsistency,
or uncertainty among thoughts and beliefs and associated behavior;
• wanting or needing to solve a problem or eliminate a threat or risk;
• wanting or needing to eliminate inconsistency between one’s bad
actions and one’s need for self-esteem — mind games or distorting
the facts in one’s own favor;
• wanting or needing to be optimistic or hopeful;
• wanting or needing to perceive sensory input in a manner that gives
one a sense of being oriented and having cognitive control;
• wanting or needing self-respect or a positive self-concept;
• wanting or needing to grow and to achieve specific goals;
• wanting or needing to create something good or beautiful;
• wanting or needing to be in control of one’s life;
• wanting or needing to believe in a supreme being or creator who
values humans enough to give them immortality;
• wanting or needing to feel competent;
• wanting or needing to attribute causes to events.
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with written permission.
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with written permission

4. A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
affective
• wanting or needing to increase specific good feelings and moods;
• wanting or needing to decrease specific bad feelings and moods;
• wanting or needing to act on feelings of empathy (bio-soc-emotional);
• wanting or needing a “thrill” (sensation seeking or thrill seeking).
social
• wanting or needing to imitate models with status who are able to
obtain rewards;
• wanting or needing to be valued and admired by significant others
(cognitive-behavioral);
• wanting or needing to help and support others in need when one is
being empathetic and not reacting to fear;
• wanting or needing to punish those one believes have wronged them
or wronged someone they love or care about (bio-social);
• wanting or needing to help others in spite of threats to self and related
fear – courage (social-affective);
• wanting or needing others to care about (social-affective).
• wanting or needing to be socially responsible and socially conscious.
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with written permission

5. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
Instincts
Drives
Goals/Incentives
Excitement/Arousal
Achievement
Friendship/Affiliation
Self-Fulfillment
Power
Many explanations have been given
for why human beings do what they do:
These explanations of
motivation can be divided
into five categories:
behavioral
biological
emotional
cognitive
social

6. Motivation Defined
The following definitions reflect the consensus that
motivation is an internal state (sometimes described as
a need, desire, or want) that activates behavior and/or
thought and gives either or both direction.
– An internal state or condition that activates behavior
and gives it direction;
– A desire or want that energizes and directs goal-
oriented behavior;
– The influence of needs and desires on the intensity
and direction of behavior;
– The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior;
– Physiological and psychological factors that account
for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior
(Davis and Palladino, 2005).
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission

7. Types of Motivation
INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC
Arrangement by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004

8. Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivators
•Intrinsic motivator:
» Some behaviors have directly rewarding results
that satisfy drives (e.g. food when hungry,
entertainment when bored).
» Many behaviors are engaged in because they are
valued, beneficial to self and/or others, and elicit
rewarding feelings (e.g., pride, self-worth,
compassion).
•Extrinsic motivator:
» Externally available stimulus not related to the
satisfaction of immediate drives, desires, or
needs (e.g. money).
» Includes immediate external environmental
consequences of behavior, and others’
encouragement.
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Source: Bell, Vaughan (2002). Motivation and Emotion. PPT slide retrieved from http://www.cf.ac.uk/psych/home/bellv1/conf/VaughanMotivationEmotionLecture2004.ppt#5
Accompanying MS Word Lecture at http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=fast+route+is+quick%2C+inaccurate&btnG=Search. Written permission granted.

9. Sources of Motivation
• Explanations regarding the sources of motivation can be
categorized as extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic
(inside the person).
• Intrinsic sources can be subcategorized as (a) body
(physical), (b) mind (mental), (c) mind (feeling), or
(d) transpersonal (spiritual).
• Needs are dispositions toward action that are associated
with subcategories (a-c) above.
• It appears likely that the initiation of behavior may be
more related to emotions and/or the affective domain
(optimism vs. pessimism; self-esteem; etc.), while
persistence may be more related to conation (volition) or
will and one’s goal-orientation.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission.

10. MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC INTRINSIC
Copied with written permission from Professor Bill Huitt’s. Those interested in locating the works cited in these
slides should visit his website at http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html. Motivation is one of
many topics he covers. For a complete list, go to the index at http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyindxc.html.
Dr. Bill Huitt is a helpful and informed professor who would be willing to assist you online if you have a question.
Operant
Conditioning
Social
Cognition
Cognition Affect Conation
Biology Spirituality

11. Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with his written permission.

12. 1. Biological
• 1a. Human Instincts, if they exist, are
involuntary, unlearned, and triggered by
environmental events called releasing stimuli.
• 1b. Drive Reduction views motivation as
reducing physiological imbalances. A drive is an
internal motivational state that is manifest as a
physical need.
• 1c. Optimum Arousal-Level proposes that we
seek an optimum level of arousal and that our
level at any given time can be too high or too low.
Any form of stimulation or cognitive activity
affects arousal, but each is qualitatively unique.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission.

13. 1b. Biological Drives
 Drive-Reduction Theory (1940s and 50s)
 Proposes that a physiological need creates an aroused
state (a drive) that motivates a person to satisfy this
need.
Drive-reducing
behaviors
(eating, drinking)
Need
(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)
We act to reduce the push exerted by drives, internal stimuli that represent
biological needs. Behavior helps us to maintain homeostasis, or a steady
biological state. When an internal system is out of balance, a drive builds up to
force balance restoration. Typically primary and secondary drives are identified.
Still, our behavior is not always consistent with our drives. You may be hungry
right now, but you're not eating. Perhaps the biggest hole in this theory is that
some behaviors do not decrease internal tensions, they increase them.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Benoit, Anthony (2002). Emotion and Motivation: Module 33-38 course outline. Retrieved from http://environmentalet.org/psy111/motimotion.htm#theoriesm

14. Cognitive dissonance theory is similar to
“disequilibrium” in Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development. CD theory states that
when there is a discrepancy between two
beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and
an action, we will act to resolve these
discrepancies and distort the facts to our
advantage if necessary. Beliefs about self can
be involved, and protecting self-esteem is
often pivotal
3. Cognitive Theories
3a Cognitive Dissonance Theory

15. 3a. Cognitive Dissonance
• Festinger (1957) proposed a very specific
cognitive source of motivation that produces
a motivating psychophysiological state.
• They discovered what happens when a
person is faced with a combination of their
own actions, beliefs, and thoughts that are
contradictory, conflicting, inconsistent, or
dissonant.
• According to Festinger this causes a a
tension or cognitive dissonance, often
resolved through rationalization and other
reality distortions.
• For example, thinking or behaving in a
manner that is inconsistent with one’s moral
standards or one’s positive opinion of self
Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

16. The second approach is (Heider,
1958). Every individual tries to
explain success or failure through
"attributions," which are either
internal or external, and either under
one’s control (effort, ability) or out of
one’s control (luck, task difficulty). Heider, F.
(1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal. Relations. New York: Wiley.
3b. Attribution Theory

17. 3b. What is Attribution Theory
 Attribution theory is concerned with
answering the question, “Why do people do
what they do?”
 It is a theory concerned with how people
formulate explanations about the causes of
their own behavior and that of others.
 The causal explanations assume that behavior
is caused by things either inside or outside the
person, and within or outside their control.
 People attribute a causal explanations to an
atypical behavior because they want to make
sense of it.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

18. 4a. Vroom (1964) proposes that Motivation = Perceived
Probability of Success (Expectancy) X Connection Between
Success and Reward (Instrumentality) X Value of
Obtaining the Goal (Value). Since the three factors of
Value, Expectancy, and Instrumentality are multiplied by
each other, a low value in one will result in a low value in
motivation. If one doesn't believe he can be successful
OR does not see a connection between his activity and
reward OR does not value the results of success, then
motivation is lacking.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
4. Cognitive-Behavioral Theories or
“Expectancy” or “Value-Expectancy” Theories

19. Reinforcement Value
refers to the
desirability of these
outcomes. Things we
want to happen, that
we are attracted to,
have a high
reinforcement value.
4b. Rotter’s Theory Combines
Behaviorism and Personality Research
To understand behavior, one must take (a) the individual (life
history of learning and experiences) and (b) the environment
(stimuli the person is aware of and responding to) into account.
If you change the way the person thinks, or change the
environment he or she is responding to, you change behavior.
Behavior Potential
is the likelihood of
engaging in a
particular behavior
in a specific
situation.
Expectancy is the
subjective probability
that a given behavior
will lead to a
particular outcome,
or reinforcer.
Behavior Potential (BP), Expectancy (E) and Reinforcement Value (RV) can be
combined into a predictive formula for behavior: BP = f(E & RV)
Psychological Situation. Although the psychological situation does not figure directly into
Rotter's formula for predicting behavior, he believes it is always important to keep in mind that
different people interpret the same situation differently.
= f
Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. New York: Prentice Hall. Slide designed by Dr. Gordon Vessels, 2005.

20. Atkinson’s (1957) expectancy-value theory states that
achievement, performance, persistence, and choice
are directly linked to an individual’s expectancy-
related and task-value beliefs.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behaviors. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
The expectancy aspect focuses on beliefs about
efficacy, competence, expectations for success, and
failure, plus feelings of control over outcomes.
The value aspect focuses on incentives, personality,
character, and reasons for engaging in activities.
Most expectancy-value theorists see expectancies and
values as positively related.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behaviors. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
4c. Expectancy-Value Theory (Cognitive Behavioral)

21. 5. Social Learning/Cognition Theories
• Social learning theory suggests that modeling (imitating others) and
vicarious reinforcement (watching others have consequences applied
to their behavior) are important motivators. Associated with Bandura.
Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determinism. In this view,
the environment, an individual's behavior, and the individual's
characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions, cognitive development)
influence and are influenced by each other.
• Albert Bandura highlights the concepts of self-efficacy (the belief that a
particular action goal can be accomplished) and self-regulation (the (a)
establishment of goals, (b) development of a plan, (c) commitment to
implement that plan, (d) implementation of the plan, and (e)
subsequent reflection and modification or redirection).
• All of these concepts are incorporated into various eclectic
“expectancy” and “values and expectancy” theories to be described
and elaborated in the next few slides.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission.

22. 5a. Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s social-cognitive model of motivation places
emphasis on self-efficacy.
“Bandura defined self-efficacy as individuals’ ‘confidence in their
ability to organize and execute a given course of action to solve a
problem or accomplish a task’; he characterized it as a
‘multidimensional construct that varies in strength, generality,
and level (or difficulty)’ ” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 110).
Self-efficacy focuses on EXPECTATIONS:
• Expectations for success (Outcome Expectations) — a
belief that certain behaviors will result in certain outcomes.
• Efficacy Expectations — a belief about whether or not one
can perform the behaviors necessary to attain a certain
outcome
Extracted from Eccles, Allan & Wigfield, Jacquelyn (2002). Development of Achievement Motivation, First Edition. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press.

23. Bandura mentions several motives for imitating a
model:
a. past reinforcement
b. promised reinforcement (incentives)
c. vicarious reinforcement -- seeing and recalling the
model being reinforced.
These are traditionally viewed as things that “cause”
learning
Bandura proposes instead that they cause us to show
what
we have learned, that is, they are motives.
Negative “motivations” give us reason not to imitate:
d. past punishment.
e. promised punishment (disincentives)
d. vicarious punishment.
He states that punishment does not work as well as
Reinforcement and can produce undesirable
5b. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with his writtenpermission

24. 6a. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
“According to Maslow, there are several types of needs (physiological,
safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act
unselfishly. He called these ‘deficiency needs.’ As long as we are motivated
to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-
actualization” (Gwynne, 1997, para 3).
6. Humanistic Theories of Motivation
Gwynne, Robert (1997). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
Abraham Maslow is known for his hierarchy of needs theory. He proposed
that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain
lower-level or deficiency needs must be satisfied before activities that could
satisfy higher-level needs can be seriously pursued.

25. 6a. Maslow's “Metamotivation”
Self actualizing people are motivated differently than
those who are not self-actualizing. Maslow calls this
Metamotivation or “B-Motivation” for (Being
Motivation). Self-actualizers are not preoccupied by
reducing tensions but by the desire to enrich their lives.
The motivation to self actualize is intrinsic – actions for
the sake of actions rather than for some external reward.
Maslow's “D – Motivation” or
“Deficiency Motivation”
D-Motivation rectifies deficiencies and the physical,
emotional, and cognitive tension or discomfort associated
with them – biologic, psychological gratification through
lower level needs
Falikowski, A. (2002). Mastering Human Relations, 3rd Edition. Pearson Education. Summary information on Motivation retrieved from
Karen Hamilton’s webpage at http://webhome.idirect.com/~kehamilt/ipsymot.html. Slide arrangement by Dr. Gordon Vessels, 2005.

26. Maslow’s Needs in Detail
Extracted from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
Physiological Needs
“Physiological needs are very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When these are not satisfied we
may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to
establish homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may think about other things.”
Safety Needs
“Safety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world. These needs are mostly
psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and family. However, if a family is dysfunction, i.e., an abusive
husband, the wife cannot move to the next level because she is constantly concerned for her safety. Love and
belongingness have to wait until she is no longer cringing in fear. Many in our society cry out for law and order because
they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighborhood. Many people, particularly those in the inner cities,
unfortunately, are stuck at this level. In addition, safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious. Religions
comfort us with the promise of a safe secure place after we die and leave the insecurity of this world.”
Love Needs
“Love and belongingness are next on the ladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups: clubs, work groups,
religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others.
Performers appreciate applause. We need to be needed. Beer commercials, in addition to playing on sex, also often
show how beer makes for camaraderie. When was the last time you saw a beer commercial with someone drinking
beer alone?”
Esteem Needs
“There are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem which results from competence or mastery of a task.
Second, there's the attention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to the belongingness level,
however, wanting admiration has to do with the need for power. People who have all of their lower needs satisfied,
often drive very expensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem. ‘Hey, look what I can afford-peon!’ "
Self-Actualization
“The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is
capable of becoming." People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace,
esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, oneness with God, etc. It is usually middle-class to upper-class students who take
up environmental causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a monastery, etc.”
Gwynne, Robert (1997). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM

27. McClelland (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, &
Lowell, 1953) proposed that all humans have
a distinct internal motive to:
• Seek achievement
• Attain realistic but challenging goals
• Advance
Individuals are thought to posses a strong
need for feedback regarding their
achievement and progress, and need a sense
of accomplishment.
6c. Need for Achievement Theory
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

28. 7. Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation
The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a
variety of influences. Freud (1990) suggested that all
action or behavior is a result of potentially harmful
internal, biological instincts classified into two
categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression).
Freud's students broke with him over this concept.
For example, Erikson proposed that interpersonal
and social relationships are fundamental along with
invariant developmental crises that must be resolved
or responded to in some way; Adler proposed that the
need for power is basic; Jung proposed that
temperament and the search for meaning is basic.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission