useful for BSc and Diploma in nursing students.

1. Introduction to Sociology, BehavioralScience
and Stress-Coping Theories
Behavioral Science
Concept of Behavioral Science
Behavioral science explores the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioral
interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis
and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled
and naturalistic observation of the present, and disciplined scientific experimentation and
modeling. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous
formulation and observation.
Examples of behavioral sciences include- ▪ Psychology, ▪ Psychobiology, ▪
Anthropology, and ▪ Cognitive science.
Definition of behavioral science:
Behavioral science is a branch of science (such as psychology, sociology or
anthropology) that deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about
human behavior in society.
Or
A science or branch of learning, as psychology or sociology that derives its concepts
from observation of the behavior of living organisms.
Or
A scientific discipline, such as sociology, anthropology, or psychology, in which the
actions and reactions of human and animals are studied through observational and
experimental methods.
Or
Any of several studies, as sociology, psychology, or anthropology, that examine human
activities in an attempt to discover recurrent patterns and to formulate rules about social
behaviour is known as behavioural science.
Or
The scientific study of human and animal science. Or The application of scientific
methods to the study of the behaviour of organisms

2. Categories of Behavioral Science:
Behavioral science include two broad categories –
Neural – Information science
Social – Relational sciences
Information science : Information science deals with information processing of stimuli
from the social environment by cognitive entities in order to engage in decision making,
social judgment and social perception for individual functioning and survival of
organism in a social environment. These include –
 Psychology,
 Cognitive science,
 Psychobiology,
 Neural networks,
 Social cognition,
 Social psychology,
 Semantic networks,
 Ethology, and
 Social neuroscience.
Relational science: Relational sciences deal with relationships, interaction,
communication networks, associations and relational strategies or dynamics between
organisms or cognitive entities in a social system. These include fields like-
 Sociological social psychology,
 Social networks,
 Dynamic network analysis,
 Agent-based model and
 Micro-simulation.
 Concept about Social Science
Social Science is the study of the characteristics, changes, causes and consequences of
human behavior in groups. It provides an understanding of the structure and dynamics of

3. social systems from small interactions to entire societies and world systems. Students are
trained to evaluate the effects of gender, ethnic background, social class, religion, and
community on an individual or group. The sociological perspective is crucial for success
in today’s multicultural and multinational work environments. Thus, a background in
social science is valuable preparation for careers in almost any modern organizational
setting.
Social science tells us about the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help
explain how our own society works - from the causes of unemployment or what helps
economic growth, to how and why people vote, or what makes people happy. It provides
vital information for governments and policymakers, local authorities, non-governmental
organizations and others.
Definition of Social science
According to Young and Mack,
"By Social science we mean those bodies of knowledge complied through the use of
scientific method which deal with the forms and contents of man's interaction
Example: History, Political science, Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology
Or
According to lan Robertson
The term social science refers to "A related group of discipline that stady various aspects
of 1 behavior"
 Sociology,
 Economics,
 Political science,
 Psychology.
 Anthropology are the important social science.
Or
Social science is a scholarly or scientific discipline that deals with such study,
generally regarded as including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics,
political science, and history.

4. Branches of Social Science
1. Social morphology:
2. Social physiology: Studies the influence of religion, law,
economy and other aspects on society
3. General sociology:
The philosophical part of sociology, as it
discovers social laws from social
associations.
4. Historical sociology
Historical sociology is one of the main branch
es of modern sociology and it studies the
background of social events
5. Sociology of knowledge
This branch of sociology believes that our
knowledge is a social product.
What this branch tries to show is that all the
things we know come predetermined by
social phenomena
and social relation
6. Criminology
Criminology studies the criminal
behaviour of individuals of groups
7. Political sociology
This branch of sociology is also widely
useful for today's societies as it studies
the interrelationship between society
and politics.
8. Human ecology
Ecology is a branch of biology that studies the
relation between
organisms and their environment.
9. Other branches Of sociology 1. Rural sociology: it studies societies in rural
areas.
2. Urban sociology: it studies societies in cities
and other urban areas
3. Sociology of demography: studies the
distribution of the human populations

5. SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION:
Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships,
social interaction, and culture. The term sociology was first used by Frenchman
August Comte in the 1830s when he proposed a synthetic science uniting all
knowledge about human activity.
Meaning of sociology:
‘Sociology' which had once been treated as social philosophy or the philosophy of
history, emerged as an independent social science in the 19th century. August Comte,
a French man, is traditionally considered to be father of sociology. Comte is
accredited with the coining of the term sociology in 1839. ‘Sociology' is composed of
two words, ‘Socious' meaning companion or associate; and ‘logos’ meaning science
or study. The etymological meaning of ‘sociology' is thus the science of society
Definition of sociology:
1. According to August come the founding father of sociology, defines
sociology as the science of social phenomena “subject to natural and
invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation''.
2. Marshall Jones defines “Sociology as the study of man-in-relationship-to-
men ’’.
3. Emile Durkheim defines “Sociology as the science of social institutions ’’.
4. Harry M. Johnson says that “Sociology is the science that deals with social
groups''.
5. Park regards “Sociology as the science of collective behaviour ’’.
6. Kingsley Davis says that “Sociology is a general science of society ’’.
7. Orgburn and Nimkoff define sociology as “the scientific study of social life
’’.
8. MacIver/Sorokin define sociology as “about social relationships’’. The
network of relationship call society.
9. Giddings defines sociology is the scientific study of society
Branches of Sociology:
1.Theoretical Sociology Under this branch of Sociology, the theories of Karl Marx,
August Comte, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, Sorokin, etc, are studiedunder the
theories of sociology. These theories are based on theoretical perspectives and the
assumption that social systems like family, roles, culture, social structure, and society as
a whole exists and are real.

6. For example, sociologists analyze different books and theories like ‘The
theories of “Economic determinism” and the “Theory of Suicide” by Emile Durkheim.
These theories help sociologists in organizing ideas and thoughtsamidst the huge cluster
of theories available and utilizing them simultaneously.
2. Historical Sociology Another name in the list of branches of Sociology is History!
This is considered to be the study of social facts and social groups. The background is
usually studied in this category. We get to know about the social events at large. The
answers to different questions are given like how and when different social groups or
organizations originated. The sociologist analyze and study The history of Hindu,
Roman, Greek, etc. and other major civilizations.
3.Sociology of Knowledge This branch of sociology helps to know and help to gain
knowledge of social phenomena. They come to conclusions that highlight how
knowledge is always influenced by society. The economic, religious, political , and
other interests save human belief and ideas.
4.Criminology This branch of sociology studies the criminal behavior of people or
groups of people. Many questions are answered through it, like knowing the origin of
the crime, its types of nature, causes as well as law, punishment, police, etc. The efforts
for the improvement are also studied. Different organizations established to control the
crime as well as their role also come under its study for a better understanding.
5. Sociology of Religion This branch of sociology helps to study the structure of
religion in the social system. Since religion has a lot of impact on society and as no
society is free from it. It analyses the social behavior of human beings towards religion
and their faith, along with the study of religious constitutions and their role in the
society.
6. Sociology of Economy This one in the list of branches of Sociology studies the
production, distribution, consumption and exchange of goods and services. It helps to
study the economic activities of the society in which the focus is given about the socio-
cultural factors.
7. Rural Sociology This branch of sociology studies the way of life of rural people as
the rural population is higher than the urban. Patterns of life such as behavior, belief,
culture, tradition norms, values, etc. which are totally different from urban people are
analyzed in this branch. So, it studies rural society in a scientific way. It also studies
rural life, social institutions, social structure, social processes, etc. of the rural society.

7. 8. Urban Sociology This branch of sociology helps to know the way of life of urban
people. It gives details about the social organizations of urban society as well as the
social structure and social interaction the urban people got through. It also studies the
social pathology of urban society such as discrimination, crime, corruption, robbery,
beggary, loot, theft, unemployment, prostitution, environmental pollution, etc.
9. Political Sociology This branch of sociology studies different political moments of
society. It includes the study of different political ideologies of individuals, their origin,
development and functions. In this study, different political parties are considered as
social institutions. Various activities and behavior of political parties are studied in this
branch. It helps to understand the factors on which the political decisions are taken.
10. Sociology of Demography Under this branch, there are studies about the size,
situation, composition, density, distribution, and measurement etc. of the population.
In this branch of sociology, we study the distribution of the human population with the
analysis of population change in sociological perspectives. It also finds out the
determining factors of population change and its trend.
11. Sociology of Law Sociology of law and the legal system are considered as an
integral part of society. Law is one of the very important means of social control. Law
is related to other different social subsystems. This branch of sociology is related to
moral order for the society as formulation and implementation of rules and
regulations, law and order come under this.
Nature or characteristic of sociology
Sociology as a branch of knowledge has it’s own unique characteristics.
1. Sociology is an independent science:-sociology has now emerged into an
independent science. It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other
science like philosophy or political philosophy or history. As an independent
science, it has it’s own field of study, boundary and method.
2. Sociology is a social science and not a physical science:-sociology belongs to
the family of social science and not to the family of physical science. As a
social science, it concentrates it ‘attention on men his social behavior,
socialactivities and social life.
3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline:-sociology confines
itself to statements about what is not, what should be or ought to be. As a
science , sociology is necessary silent about questions of value. It doesn’t
make any kind of value judgments. It’s approach is neither moral orimmoral

8. but amoral. It is ethically neutral.
4. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science:-sociology is a pure
science, because the immediate aim of sociology is the acquisition of
knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge.
5. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science:-It
only means that sociology is not interested in concrete manifestations of
human events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and
their parents. For example, sociology is not concerned with particular wars
and revolutions but with war and revolution in general, as social
phenomena as types social conflict.
6. Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing
science:-sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about
human interaction and association, about the nature, form, content and
structure of human groups and societies. It does not study each and every
event that takes place in society. It does not by examine all the secondary
groups but by observing and studying a few.
7. Sociology is a general science not a special science:-The area of inquiry of
sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human
interaction and human life in general. Other social sciences like political
science, history, economics etc. Also study man and human intention on
certain aspects of human interaction and activities and specialize
themselves, in these fields. 8. Finally sociology is both a rational and an
empirical science:-The empiricist collects facts, the rationalist co-ordination
and arranges them. Immanuel Kant says that, “theory without facts are
empty and facts without theories are blind.
Scope of sociology:
1. The specialist or formalistic school.
2. The synthetic school.
Use of sociology in nursing
Sociology is a very useful science specially in nursing education, service and
profession.
1. Sociology will help the doctors and nurses to know the culture and social

9. life of the patients: It must be known before treating them, so as to
makethe medical and nursing services more effective and for this the
study of sociology in necessary.
2. Personal adjustment:-knowledge of sociology will help doctor or nurse as
persons to adjust with the situations in the hospital environment with
doctor-nurse patients relationship, nurse administration and doctors
relations, doctor nurse and public relations.
3. Health care services:-medical sociology is extremely useful for the entire
health care services:
 Recognition of the significance of social forces in health, example-
change in cognitive process.
 Need to deal with such social process as health values and
motivation, example-change in effective process.
4. Prevention of disease:-They should promote the health community. The
study of sociology will help the nurse to identify the social background
ofthe patients.
5. Improve the quality of patients:-The study of sociology helps nurse to
identify the socio-psychological problems of the patients, which helps
toimprove the quality of treatment.
6. Support the government in various schemes of social planning:- social
planning for, eg. The family health programs and welfare of the
government can be successful implemented only with the active
participation of the nurses.
7. Family welfare programmes:-The study of sociology helps the nurses to
improve the quality of the family welfare programs and the
communityhealth services of the government.
8. Health care:-Nurses have to interact with spectrum of persons whose
behaviors are verified for example: patients, doctors, other family
members, management, government and society at large. The study of
sociology will assist understanding these behavior patterns, which will
inturn help to improve health care.
9. Relationship between various elements of social life:-The study of sociology
helps the nurses to understand and relationship between various
elements of social life, such as economic, political, moral, religious and
intellectual etc. Which also help in the identification of various diseases.
10.Inter personal relationship:-The study of sociology helps to build

10. interpersonal relationship between the patients, medical personnel,
Para medical personnel in the implementation of preventive,
curative and primitive aspects of health in the community.
11.Care for special groups in the society:-The study of sociology helps the
nurses to improve their care for special groups in the society like
children,aged, physically and mentally impaired, people affected by
HIV/AIDS etc. These diseases can be attacked only with the complete
knowledge of the differing cultural backgrounds of the patients.
12.Responsible citizen:-In these manner the nurses require a
thorough knowledge of sociology in order to be responsible
citizens in the improvement of health education in the country.
 Sociologist distinctive contributions to the profession of nursing is
knowledge of social interaction, how group attitudes are formed,
how groups differ from one another and how groups members likely
to behave and most importantly, what society expects from the
profession.
Difference between sociology and psychology:
Basis for comparison Sociology Psychology
Meaning Sociology is the study
of origin, development
structure and function
of the society and
social interaction
Psychology is the
systematic study of
human mind and
behavior using various
techniques
Science General science Special science
Subject area Social behavior of an
individual in a group
Human mind and
behavior
Studies Groups and society Individual
Process Observational Experimental
Deals with Interaction with people Human emotions
◑ Sociology as a science:-
The term science refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon
systemic observation. Just like other scientific disciplines, sociology engage in
organized, systemic study of phenomena in order to enhance understanding. In

11. contrast to other social sciences, sociology emphasizes the influence that society has
on people’s attitudes and behavior and examines the ways in which people shape
society.
◑ Who defines sociology as a science:- The founding father of sociology, like
August comte, and the original academic sociologist like Emile Durkheim, certainly
saw their subject as scientific. These positivists believed that sociology could use
scientific method to establish social facts and prove Universal laws, exactly like the
natural science.
◑ Opinion that sociology as science:- According to an American sociologist W.F.
ogburn, a science is to be judged by three criteria-
(a)- The reliability of knowledge- science depends upon reliable knowledge. In this
regard sociology has made a promising beginning. Sociological studies of population
the family, group behavior, the evolution of institutions the process of social change
and such other topics are regarded as considerably reliable.
Sociology mainly deals with the human material and this human material is irregular
and illusive. Social relations are not fixed but flexible. It is difficult tocontrol the
variable, and there are many variables in social data.
(b)- The Organization of knowledge - Disjoined collection of facts cannot be a science.
The science should be organized. The organization of a science rests uponthe
relationship, which the part of knowledge bears to each other. The value of
organization lies not in symmetry, but its value for the discovery of more knowledge.
In sociology there are many inter relationship which are enough to encourage more
discoveries though inadequate to provide a proper synthesis for the whole field.
(c) - Method - Scientific method start with a hypothesis. This hypothesis is verified
through experimentation. But an experimentation of laboratory situation is difficult in
sociology. Experimental method requires a fixed static situation. But it is difficult in
sociology. Social life is actually dynamic and not static. Strictly speaking, laboratory
experiment is not possible in sociology. However in sociologywe can measure the
relationship of two variables by employing statistical method. For example, if we
want to know whether families with low income havemore infant deaths, we can
collect the statistics. Sociology has quite a number of other methods besides the
experimental method. The historical method, case study method, social survey
method and the statistical method etc. These methods are often found to be fruitful in
sociological studies.

12. ❖ Importance of sociology :-
01. Sociology studies society in a scientific way : Scientific knowledge about
human society is needed in order to achieve progress in various fields.
02. Sociology improves our understanding of society : social groups, social
interactions, their functions and the change in trends etc, help us to lead
an effective meaningful social life.
03. Sociology helps us to become broad minded : sociology has impressed
upon it’s students to overcome their prejudices, misconceptions, egoistic
ambitions, and class and religious hatred.
04. Sociology enlightens us regarding the major social institutions: social
institutions decide the strength and weakness of the society. Knowledge of
sociology may help to Strengthen them to serve society better.
05. Sociology helps us to solve social problems : The study of sociology helps
to find out the causes of social problems and suggest measures to solve
the social problems.
★ Importance of sociology in nursing profession :
Sociology is a very useful science specially for the nursing profession, as discuss
below :
1. Sociology will help the doctors and nurses to know the culture and social
life of the patients. In a country like Bangladesh, where people have their
affiliation with different religious, castes, tribes and 02 communities. It is
essential to know the culture of those groups. The customs, traditions,
folkways, mores and values of the patients must beknow before treating
them. So as to make the medical and nursing services more affecting study
of sociology is necessary.
2. Nursing plays a vital role in health care profession. Nurses are the key
persons who have significant influence over the group member within the
society. Nurses work for maintenance of healthier life style and high
standards of living.
3. Nurses in close association with health care team members and they work
in coordination with various agencies in the community for betterment of
living. The social institutions like family, state, political group,
governmental agencies play dominant role over the societal life.In
coordination with primary, secondary group, governmental agenciesplay
dominant role over the societal life.

13. 4. To understand and meet the needs of the individual, family and social
needs in a holistic manner thereby nation's development can be achieved.
5. To gain greater insight into the human problems as related to the
illness.
6. To make a diagnosis of people’s beliefs and practices to various disease.
Relationship between sociology "and psychology”
 Sociology and psychology are very closely interlinked, interrelated and
interdependent.
 Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that psychologist like
Karl Pearson Refuses to accept both as special science. Both depend on each
other for their own Comprehension. Their Relationship will be clean if we
analyze their inter-relationship and mutual dependency.
 Sociology and psychology are both involve in solving the exist social problems,
Sociology helps psychology and psychology helps sociology social psychology
serves the bridge between psychology and sociology. It deals with mental
Process of man considering him as a social being.
Conclusion:- sociology as a discipline is a Product of modern society. This is
trove for all the classical statements about the emergence and transformation of
human society more or less between the period of the French Revolution of the
later half of the eighteenth century and the end of word war. It was a period that
saw a dramatic change in peoples lives and social living.

14. Stress -Copying Theories
Concept about Stress: Stress refers to the widespread, generalized responses of
the body to various environmental, physical or social situations. Any interference
which disturbs the homeostasis of an organism is called stress. The causative factors
are called stressors. Stressors are bio-psychosocial in origin. It is a force that effects
our emotions and motives. It is the wear and tear of life. It is called the disease of
modern civilization. It affects people of all ages and can be both good and bad. Each
person reacts differently to stress but we all need some stressin order to be active,
happy and productive. It is the pattern of specific or nonspecific responses an
organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its
ability to cope. The stimulus events, include a large variety of external and internal
conditions, are collectively called stresses. A stressor is a stimulus events that places a
demand on an organism for some kind of adaptive response.
Definition of Stress: According to David Fontana "Stress is a demand made upon
the adaptive capacities of the mind and body". According to Lazarus and Folkman
(1984) “ Stress may be defined as an internal state which can be caused by physical
demands of body or by environmental and social situations, which are evaluated as
potentially harmful, uncontrollable, or exceeding our resources for coping”.
Or
A psychological and physical response of the body that occurs whenever we mustadapt
to changing conditions, whether those conditions be real or perceived, positive or
negative
Definition of Stressor: A stressor is any event, experience, or environmental
stimulus that causes stress in an individual These events or experiences are
perceived as threats or challenges to the individual and can be either physical or
psychological.
Or
A Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or
positive) is considered a stressor. For example, getting a promotion is a positive
event, but may also produce a great deal of stress with all the new
responsibilities, work load, etc

15. Symptoms of stress: Symptoms of stress appear in many forms. Some
symptoms only impact the person who is experiencing stress, while other
symptoms may have an impact of our relationship with others.
A. Physical Symptoms
 Muscle tension
 Colds or other illnesses
 High blood pressure ▪
Indigestion
 Ulcers
 Rapid breathing or pounding
of heart
 Difficulty in sleeping
 Fatigue
 Backaches
 Headaches,back or neck
problems
 Increased smoking or drinking
alcohol
 Being more prone to
accidents.
B. Cognitive Symptoms
 Forgetfulness
 Unwanted or repetitive
thoughts
 Difficulty in concentration
 Fear of failure
 Self-criticism.
C. Emotional Symptoms
 Irritability
 Depression
 Anger
 Fear or anxiety
 Feeling overwhelmed
 Mood swings.

16. Causes /Sources of Stress :
A. Life stresses can also have a big impact. Examples of life stresses are:
 The death of a loved one
 Divorce
 Loss of a job
 Increase in financial obligations
 Getting married
 Moving to a new home
 Chronic illness or injury
 Emotional problems (depression, anxiety, anger, grief,guilt,low
self-esteem)
 Taking care of an elderly or sick family member
 Traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, theft,rape,or
violence against you or a loved one.
B. Causes of work stress include:
 Being unhappy in your job
 Having a heavy workload or too much responsibility
 Working long hours
 Having poor management, uncinar expectations of your work, or
no say in the decision -making process
 Working under dangerous conditions
 Being insecure about your chance for advancement or risk of
termination
 Having to give speeches in front of colleagues
 Facing discrimination or harassment at work, especially if your
company isn't supportive

17. Effects of Stress:
The effects of stress are divided into three categories:
A. Physiological effects:
Commonly appearing stress related
bodily disorders are-
 Peptic unclears
 Hypertension
 Chronic fatigue
 Hormonal changes
 Increased heart rate
 Difficulty in breathing
 Numbness of limbs
 Heart disease and
 Reduction in immunity, etc
B. Psychological effects:  Anxiety
 Depression
 Hopelessness
 Helplessness
 Anger
 Nervousness
 lrritability
 Tension and
 Boredom may be experienced
C. Behavioural changes:  Decreasing efficiency
 Making mistakes
 Inability to take decisions
 Under eating or overeating
 Sleeplessness
 Increased smoking
 Develop addiction to
alcoholand drugs
 Forgetfulness
 Hypersensitivity or
passiveness

18.  Accident proneness and
interpersonal difficulties are
seen.
Adaptation Theory (Dr. Hans Selve) (1945):
All stresses tend to produce a homeostatic change in the body. Though
stress itself cannot he perceived, it can be measured by the structural and
chemical changes that it produces in the body. These manifest themselves
as the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) when affecting the whole body,
and as local adaptation syndrome (LAS) when only a limited part of the body
is exposed to stress. A syndrome is a particular pattern or grouping of
symptoms.
General Adaptation Syndrome
The general adaptation syndrome occurs :
1. The alarm reaction.
2. The stage of resistance.
3. The stage of exhaustion.
Ways to Cope with the Stress
Adaptation to stress is called coping. Whatever its source, stress calls foradjustment
either-by direct coping or by defensive coping.
A. Direct Coping
a)Confrontation: Confrontation means facing the problem forthrightly
acknowledging to oneself that there is a problem for which a solution must
befound; attacking the problem head on.
b)Compromise: We often realize that we cannot have everything we want
and that we cannot expect others to act as per our wishes. In such cases, we
may decide to settle for less than we originally wanted. If we cannot get what
we like,we must like what we get.

19. c)Withdrawal: When we realize that our adversary is more powerful than we
are or that there is no way we can change ourselves, alter the situation or
reach a compromise. The most effective way of coping with stress is to
withdraw from thesituation.
B. Defensive Coping: Defense Mechanisms
a) In all the above cases, we were dealing with stress from a recognizable source.
In other cases, when we cannot identify the source of stress, we make use of
defense mechanisms like
 Denial,
 Repression,
 projection,
 Identification,
 Reaction formation,
 Displacement and Sublimation.
Altering Bodily Reactions during Stress/Reducing Stress Reaction (Yoga or
Meditation):
The relaxation response is a condition in which muscle tension, cortical activity,
heart rate and blood pressure, all decrease and breathing; slows. There is reduced
electrical activity in the brain and the input to the central nervous system from
the outside environment is lowered. Four conditions needed to produce
relaxation response are:
1. Quiet environment
2. A comfortable position
3. Closed eyes
4. A repetitive device (manthra)
The first three lower input to the nervous system while the fourth lowers its
internal stimulation. Yoga, is a way of life, a philosophy, which aims at attaining a
higher state of conscience known as "samadhi", which is a stage of inner
tranquility. Yogis have performed remarkable feats: reduction of heart rate,
oxygen consumption, blood pressure, body temperature and many other
responses under the control of the autonomic nervous system, and hence beyond
any voluntary control.

20. Ways to Cope with Stress by the Nurse:
Nursing is one of the four most stressful professions the others being medicine,
army and police. Stress is a part of everyday life and cannot be eliminated
altogether. The following steps will help you to cope with stress in life:
1. Balance your life activities with work and play, family and friends and time
foryourself.
2. Exercise your body every day or at least four times a week. Sports,
yoga,dancing or walking will relieve the body from physical tensions.
3. Meditate to promote relaxation.
4. Relax your body regularly through a systematic method of tensing and relaxingall
your muscles.
5. Slow down your pace of life.
6. Make your goals realistic. Understand and accept what you can and what you
cannot do or be.'
7. Organize your life with priorities, so that you will always accomplish what mustbe
done at the right time.
8. Develop healthy social relationships. People will support and help you in
stressful situations.
9. Practice coping statements. These are statements you say to yourself in stressful
situations. When going for an examination, your thoughts may be, "I am
stressed","! do not remember the right things". These are negative thoughts and
should be replaced by coping statements like "I will do my best", "if I forget
something, I will just wait for a moment", "we can, if we think, we can."
Book Reference:
1. Jakob Anthikad/5th edition
2. Stephen Babu/ Psychology for Nurses/1st edition
3. BT Basavanthappa/ 2nd edition
Other Sources:
www.wikipedia.org

21. Social Structure & behavioral Theory
Social structure
Introduction of social structure
Social structure is the term that is given to all of the interconnected relationships
a various social groups and institutions in which people create and become a part
of this groups included, but are not limited to families, groups, religious
organizations, social structure help to provide Framework inwhich people
interact on an interpersonal level based on their various traits, interests and other
of who they are individually. These various groups help to create harmonious
relationships within societies by providing people opportunities with bond, grow,
feel safe and express themselves and individuals as a reaching stage collectively.
This example of social structure demonstrates how people in society structures in
arrangement of persons in social structure is in arrangement of persons in
individually developed a code of conduct in regards in living in society
Definition of social structure
The concept of social structure has different ways by different thinkers, we make
considered some of these definitions:
1. According to Radcliffe Brown: Social structure is an arrangement of persons in
individually controlled or defined social relationship (such as the relationship between
king and the subject or that of husband and wife).
2. According to Morris Ginsberg: Regards social structure as the “The complex of
principal groups and institutions which constitutes societies.”
3. According to AR Radcliffe: components of social structure are human beings, the
structure itself being and arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally defined
in regulated.
4. In loose manner, the term social structure is used to refer to any recurring pattern of
social behaviour.
Elements of social structure
1. Subgroups of various types: Society can be understood as a big group which consists
of various sub groups. Various political economic, religious, educational, familial and
other groups within the largest system and associationsrepresents such as subgroups.
People who elects roles are organised in this sub groups within the larger system.
Some of these sub
2. Social structure consists of roles of various types: social structure consists of not
only sub groups but also roles. Roles are found within largest system some of these
persist as „type' also within sub groups. The concept of role and subgroup imply
interrelationships. Role occupants are expected to fulfil obligations to other people.
For example: in family the husband has obligations towards his wife andhis children,
in college teachers they have obligation towards their students, principle and

22. management. Further norm number of sub groups that are there, are not only
interrelated but also subject to social norms the political economical and educational
and other sub groups for example are related through social norms.
3. Sub groups and roles are governed by social norms:
Social norms are of two types:
 Obligatory or relational
 Permissive or regulative
Some norms specify positive obligations but they are not
commonlyapplied to all the social norms and subgroups. Example: the
positive obligation of a family are not the same as those of business firm.
Similarly,the obligation of a father are not the same as those of a son.
Nerves of thesekind are obligatory or relational in nature.
Some other not specify the limit of permissive act. A role occupant of a
sub group in the case 'must do‟ certain things „may do‟ a certain things and
„must not do' will still others. They are called regulative norms they do not
differentiate between roles and between subgroups. For example: in our
society regardless one role was not see to influence others by threats of
violence is by violence itself.
4. Cultural values:
 Every society has its own cultural values, „values‟ refers to the measures of
goodness desirability. Individuals and groups are oftenfound to be emotionally
committed to the values.
 They have to integrate personalities or a system integration. The provide a
mean by which conflict tends to resolve. Still some conflictpersists, because no
system of action is perfectly integrated. Valuesare closely related to norms, in
fact, they may be regarded is higherorder norms.
Any of these elements of subgroups, a role, a social norm or a value may be
called partial structure.
Parts of social structure
I. All social parts of relation of person. For example, the kinship structure ofany society.
Consist of interpersonal relation between father and son, mother and daughter and
brother and his sister etc.
II. Brown includes under social structure the different social roles of individuals.
III.The differentiated social positions of men and women of chief and commoners, of
employers and employees etc. No doubt determined the different clans or Nations or
groups to which they belong but more than they work as the determinants of social
relations.

23. Social Class
A social class is grouping a of people into a set of hierarchical social categories.
The most common being the upper middle and lower classes. Membership in a
social class can for example be dependent on education, wealth, occupation,
income, and belonging to a particularsubculture or social network.
Definition of social class:
1. According to Ogburn and Nimkof:
“A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the
samesocialstatus in a given society”.
2. According to MacIver and page:
“A social class is any portion of the community marked off from the
restby socialstatus.
Characteristics of Social class
1. Element of Social Stratification: Class is a system of Social stratification and almost
universal.
2. Hierarchy Just live class groups: Classes also have a hierarchical order in relation to
each other‟s
3. Open System: Class is an open system, because a person can change his statues by
his efforts.
4. Class is Achieved: It is not based on birth like the caste, but is achieved by individual
qualities or efforts.
5. Common mode of life: People of the same social class have usually common
mode of life, and this may be differentiated form other classes.
6. Economies differences: class system is based primarily Upon economic differences
among Social groups.
Classification of Social Class
A. On the basis of mode of earning livelihood:
 Business class
 Professional class
 Labour class
B. On the basis of economic conditions:
 Upper class
 Middle class
 Lower class
C. On the basis of educational achievements:
 Uneducated

24.  Less educated
 Highly educated.
D. In Western Society generally four classes can be identified :
 Upper Class: Health financiers, Employers, Industrialists.
 Middle Class: Professionals and holders of non-manual and Jobs.
 Lower class : Workers and holders of low paid Jobs.
 Under Class : People who short-term and low states Jobs the long-team
Unemployed.
Difference between Class &
Caste:
Class Caste
1. Membership is upon objective facts,
e.g status, occupation, stand ard oflife,
wealth.
1. Membershipis based uponbirth
(subjective phenomenon).
2. Class consciousness 2. Subjective
consciousnessdemocracy
3. Does not hinder 3. Hinders democracy
4. Less social distance 4. Greater social distance
5. Flexible restriction 5. Rigid restriction similarly
6. External similarly maintained. 6. No external similarly
7. Internal similariy maintained. Eg. Dress,
Language, Customs
7. Internal similarity maintained
8. Secular region 8. Divine region
9. Elastic nature. 9. Close, rigid, stability
10. Achieved status 10. Ascribed status
Introduction of Social unit:
It is motioned a "building block" of society because it is the Primary unit
through which socialization occurs. It is a social unit created by blood,
marriageor adoption, and can be described nuclear, consisting of two parents
and their children or extended, encompassingother relatives.
Definition of Social Unit:

25. An individual, or a group or community, Considered as a discrete
constituentof a society ora larger group.
Or,
Social unit may be defined as an organization regarded part of a larger socialgroup.
Levels of Social Unit:
Although levels of analysis not necessary arced mutually exclusive, the
threegeneral levelswinds which research may fall are the.
1. Micro-level,
2. The Meso-level, and
3. The Macro-level
1. Micro - level: The smallest unit of analysis the social sciences is an individual in their
social setting. At the micro-level also referred to as the local level, the also Research
Population typically is an individual in their social setting or small individuals in a
particular social context. Examples ofmicro-level levels of analysis include, but are not
limited to, the following.
 Person
 citizen.
 Partnership, marriage.
 House hold.
 Neighborhood.
2. Meso-level: In general, a meso-level analysis indicates a population size thatfalls between
the micro-level and-macro level such as a community or an organization. However
meso- level may also refer to analysis that arespecifically designed to reveal connections
between micro and macro level units of analysis include, but are not limited to, the
following.
 Clan
 Tribe
 Community
 village, town, city
 Formal organization
 State
 Civilization
3. Macro level: Macro-level analyses generally trace the outcomes ofinteractions, such as
economic or other resource transfer interactions over a large population. Also referred to
the global level. Examples of macro-level units of analysis include, but are not limited to,
the following.
 Nation
 Society
 International
 Global

26. SOCIAL STATUS
Social status, also called status, the relative rank that an individual holds,
withattendant rights, duties and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honour
or prestige. Status may be ascribed- that is, assigned to individuals at birth
without reference to any innate abilities – or achieved, requiring special qualities
and gained through competition and individual effort. Ascribed statusis typically
based on education, occupation, marital status, accomplishments or other factor.
Society is understand in terms of the network of social interaction
andinterconnection. In any interaction situation we cannot expect everyone to
respond to the stimulus in the same manner. Because everyone has his own
separate identify which is already there even before entering the social situation.
Example, similarly, patients expect treatment for their diseases from the doctor,
students expect clarification for their doubts in lessons from their teachers and so
on. Thus, everyone enters a social; situation with an identity. This identity refers
to his position or status.
Definition Of Social Status
According to Kingsley Davis: “Status is the position in the general institutional
system recognized and adopted by the entire society spontaneously evolved
rather than deliberately created rooted in the folkways and customs.”
According to Maciver, R.M. & page: “Status is the position that determines
forits possessor,apart from his personal attribute, as a social services, a degree
of respect, prestige and influence.”
According to H. T. Majumdar: “Status means the location of the individual
within the group his place in the social network of reciprocal obligations and
privileges, rights and duties.”
According to Lundberg: Social status is the “comparative amount of prestige,
deference or accorded to persons who has been assigned different roles in
groupor community. “
Nature/ Characteristics Of Social Status
• The status is determined by cultural situation of a society.
• Status is determined only in relevance of other members of the society (relativeconcept).
• Every individual has to play certain roles in accordance with status.
• Status is not only a part of society as a whole of the society or the society as awhole.
• As a result of status society is divided into various groups.
• Every status carries with it some prestige (joking and avoidance relationship).
• Status is an important aspect of society thus on the basis of the status. Societyis divided
into groups.

27. • According to status people may be divided into different categories. Thesecategories
or statuses are not imposed from above. Some of these statuses are earned
orachieved whileother are ascribed.
• Status has nothing to do directly with the temperament of character of the individual but
every idividual is assigned a status on the bases of membership ofgroup and placement in the
group.
Importance Of Social Status
• Status is important in society because it is the fundamental unit of analyses
ofsocialstructure.
• A large number of interaction in society are status interactions and which isbased on
thestatus of an individual.
• A large number of relationship of individual are also based on their status.
• A status which contributes to interactions patterns and indolently
harmoniousinteractionamong people this contributes to the stability of society.
• Status is important because it entitle an individual certain right andresponsibility.
• Status prepare a person to perform some role.
• Status help in the development of personality of the individual and teach
theperson anormative aspect with pattern of behavior.
• The structure of society is made up of network of status and these
statusescontributeto fundamental order of society.
Types of Social Status
Two types of status :
1.Ascribed status: Ascribed status is one that is assigned to a person at birth orat different
stages in the life cycle. For example, being male and female.
2.Achieved status : Achieved status are those which the individual acquires during his or
her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and /or perseverance. For
example, being a professional athlete is an achieved status, as is being a lawyer, college
professor, or criminal.
Social Factor in Community Life
Social factor in community Many factors combine together to affect the health
ofindividuals and communities. Whether people are healthy or not, is determined
by their circumstances andenvironment. To a large extent, factors such as where
we live, the state of our environment, genetics, our income and education level,
and our relationships with friends and family all have considerable impacts on
health, whereas the more commonly considered factors such as access and use
ofhealth care services often have less of an impact.

28. Social factors that effect in community life:
A. The determinants of general include:
1.Group of people: Groups of people share the basic conditions of common life. Group
members can act collectively in an organized manner.
2.Permanency: Includes permanent group life in definite place community is relatively
stable.
3.Naturality: Community is established in a normal and natural way, they arenot made or
created by an act of will or by planned efforts. Individuals become members of the
group by birth. Community is spontaneous in theirorigin but not a sudden or
automaticexistence. The community life is comprehensive.
4.Likeness: Language, practices, customs, traditions, folkways, mores are common.
People share the common way of life and works through customsand traditions.
5.Wider Ends: People associate not for the fulfillment of a particular end, they are
natural and wider but not an artificial. The membership of community is of wide
significance.
6.Particular Name: Each community will have its own specified name indicating the
reality individuality and describes the total personalities.
7.Size of community: The term community is used in a relative sense. Thereare bigger
or wider which includes small community like villages, towns, cities, tribes etc.
8.Regulation of relations: A bundle of rules, regulations, customs, traditions,institutions
defines and shapes the members. In the rural community informal means of social
control is observed like customs, folkways, rituals, mores and beliefs whereas in
urban community formal means control (Laws, police. court, armed forces etc) is
observed 12
9.Dependency: An individual in community is physically dependent on community for
fulfillment and satisfaction of physical needs.Psychologically also he is dependent
on community as it save from solationand solitube.
B. The determinants of health include: The context of people's lives determine their
health, and so blanc individuals for having poor health or crediting them for good health is
inappropriate. Individuals are unlikely w able to directly control many of the determinants of
health. These determinants or things that make people he or not include the above factors, and
many others: 4
1.Income and social status: Higher income and social status are linked to better health.
The greater the between the richest and poorest people, the greater the differences in
health.
2.Education: Low education levels are linked with poor health, more stress and lower
self-confidence
3.Physical environment: Safe water and clean air, healthy workplaces, safe houses,
communities and road all to good health. Employment and workingconditions-people
in employment are healthier,particularly those who havemore control over their
working conditions
4.Social support networks: Greater support from families, friends and communities is
linked to better he Calture-customs and traditions, and the beliefs of the family and
community all affect health.
5.Genetics: Inheritance plays a part in determining lifespan, healthiness and the

29. likelihood of developing certain illnesses. Personal behaviour and coping skills-
balanced eating, keeping active, smoking, drinkg and how wedeal with life's stresses
and challenges all affect health.
6.Health services: access and use of services that prevent and treat disease influences
health
7.Gender: Men and women suffer from different types of diseases at differentages.
Benefits of community life:
1. Provide the individual needs security and
2. It strengthens the unity among people protection.
3. Provides for cooperation among the members. It encourages collective forces (efforts)
for fulfillme community's needs.
4. Depends on communication system among the members.
5. Provides the individual with opportunities for the expression of his talents,abilities and
pers development.
6. Provides sense of belongingness.
7. Community life has its own conflicts and contradictions for the individuals. Certain
times commun has tensions, clashes due to anti social tendency of man.
Socio Economic Status
Definition of Socioeconomic status:
Socioeconomic status is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class
of an individual or group. It is often measured as a combination of education,
income and occupation. Examinations of socioeconomic status often reveal
inequities in access to resources, plus issues related to privilege, power and
control.
Or
Socioeconomic status is often measured as a combination of education, income,
and occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of
an individual or group. When viewed through a social class lens, privilege,
power, and control are emphasized Furthermore, an examination of SES as a
gradient orcontinuous variable reveals inequities in access to and distribution of
resources. SES is relevant to all realms of behavioral and social science,
including research,practice, education, and advocacy.
Or
Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total
measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's
economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education
and occupation. When analyzing a family's SES, the household income, earners'
education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, versus

30. with an individual, when their attributes are assessed.
Main factors of Socio Economic Status:
1. Income: Income refers to wages, salaries, profits, rents and any flow of earnings
received. Income can also come in the form of unemployment or workers
compensation, social security, pensions, interests or dividends, royalties, trusts,
alimony, or other governmental, public, or family financialassistance.
2. Education: Education also plays a role in income. Median earnings increase with
each level of education. As conveyed in the chart, the highestdegrees, professional and
doctoral degrees, make the highest weekly earnings while those without a high school
diploma eam less. Higher levelsof education are associated with better economic and
psychological outcomes (i.e.: more income, more control, and greater social support
andnetworking).
3. Occupation: Occupational prestige, as one component of SES, encompasses both
income and educational attainment. Occupational status reflects the educational
attainment required to obtain the job and income levels that vary with different jobs
and within ranks of occupations.Additionally, it shows achievement in skills required
for the job. Occupational status measures social position by describing job
characteristics. decision making ability and control, and psychological demands on
the job.
4. Wealth: Wealth, a set of economic reserves or assets, presents a source of security
providing a measure of a household's ability to meet emergencies, absorb economic
shocks, or provide the means inve comfortably. Wealth reflects intergenerational
transitions as well as accumulation of income andsavings.
Social Laws & Regulations
Definition of Law:
According to Pound: “The law constitutes body of principles recognized
orenforced by publicand regular tribunals Has administration of justice.
Or,
According to Green: The law is a system of rights and obligation which the stateenforces.
Type of Law:
Law can be divided into two types. These are:
1. Civil law: It includes rules and regulations that specify the required courseof action to
be followed by an Individual in business and social relationships with others. It is
concerned with relationships among people and the protection of a person‟s right.
Although violation of civil law mightcause harm to an individual or property, no grave
threat to society as a whole usually exists. For examples, defamatory statements made
about a person might lead to personal problems, but they do not threaten society in
general.
2. Criminal law: It defines offences that affect public welfare and security and impose

31. penalties. It includes rules forbidding conduct that is injurious to public order and
specifying punishments to be administered to individual who exhibits injurious
conduct. It is concerned with relationship between individuals and governments and
with acts that threatens society and its order. Misuse of controlled substances is an
example of criminal conduct for nurses.
Sources of law:
Laws originate from four sources, which includes.
1. Constitutional law: It is the judgmental law of the country. It is the law thatgoverns the
state. It Represents the will of the ultimate sovereign the people. They alone determine
how it shall be made, revised or amended. It is the constitutional law that determines
the structure of the state, its power and duties and it also determines the form of
government and its relationship with various organs of the government
2. Statutory laws: It are passed by the legislative body or parliament of a state in
accordance with the constitutional law. In other words, statutory laws are enactments
of federal and state legislative bodies. These regularize, relationship between citizens
and the state between individuals and group and between individual and the others,
etc. The statutory law is created by elected legislative bodies of state (legislative
assembly) or administrative bodies such as Bangladesh Nursing Council.
3. Common law: It is a body of legal principles that has evolved from court decisions.
On other words it is created by judicial decisions made in courts where cases are
decided.
4. Administrative law: It consists of the rules and regulations established by
administrative agencies, that have been made by the executive branches
ofgovernment(President or Government). It is that part of public law whichregulates
the conduct of public officials and discharge of their duties. It determines the
mutual rights and duties of public officials and citizens. This law is not administered
by ordinary courts but by the administrative courts presides over by the
administrative or executive officers. It deals with the cases where officials of state
violence their powers to all arbitrarily.
Nature of Law:
1. Not universal, eg Laws were not observed in tribal societies.
2. The human activities prescribed by the state for its members.
3. It is the product of conscious through careful planning deliberateattempt made
bythe political authority.
4. Law is clear, precise and definition.
5. Violation of the law is followed by penalties, punishments determinedby
thestate.
6. Written ones.
7. Maintenance of legal order dependsupon the moral climate of a society.
8. It preserves societal behaviour.
9. Laws are enforced with the help of court, police, armed forces

32. Functions of law in nursing society:
The law has many valuable functions where applied to nursing practice
1. It differentiates nursing practice from the practice of other health careprofession.
2. It also describes and protects the rights of clients and nurses.
3. It helps establish the boundaries of independent nursing action.
4. It assists in maintain a standard of nursing practice by making
nursesaccountable Under the law.
5. It provides a framework for establishing which nursing actions in the careof
clientsare legal.
6. Eliminates the homicidal activities of individuals.
7. Persuades individuals to pay attention for the rights of others as well as toact
incooperation with others.
8. It protects the individuals and society.
9. It promotes social welfare.
Moral
Definition of morals: The term morals, although similar in meaning to
ethics,usually refers to personal or communal standards of right and wrong. It is
important distinguish ethics from religion, law, custom, and
institutionalpractices. Or
Moral are the standards of right and wrong that one learns though socialization.
Moral and ethical behavior
of nurse:
The following lists are major ingredients as necessary for caring proposed
byMeyeroff:
➢ Knowledge
➢ Alternative rhythms
➢ Patience
➢ Honesty
➢ Trust
➢ Humility
➢ Hope
➢ Courage

33. Difference between laws and
morals:
Laws Morals
1. Laws regulate external humans
conduct.
1. Morals mainly regulate Internal
conduct.
2. Laws are universal. 2. Morality is variable.
3. Laws are definite & precise. 3. Morality is variable
4. Laws are upheld by the coercive
power of the state.
4. Morality simply enjoys the
support of public opinion and or
individual conscience.
5. Laws are studies under
jurisprudence.
5. Morality is studied under ethics.
Customs :
Definition of customs:
According to Ginsberg:‟Rules or norm of action supported on the
emotionalside offorces, sentiments.
Or
According to MacIever and Page:Socially accredited ways of acting.
Nature of customs:
➢Customs is a social phenomenon, which is socially recognized got social significance
and normative in nature.Customs represents routine acts of dailylife of the people,
they enjoy social sanctions.
➢Normative, maintains social order. inherited, external social sanction.
➢It has great social significance, inherited.
➢Customs are considered to be conductive to the welfare of the society.
➢Unconsciously customs are maintained as they are strongly imbedded ingroup life
➢Customs are varied in nature, e.g.For the performance of marriage
;variedreligionperforms in different manner.
➢Origin of custom is obscure_it is very difficult to as certain the exact way inwhich
customs are emerged
➢Customs are relatively durable,spontaneous in nature
➢All customs are not traditional.
Definition of norms :
According to Broom and Selznick describe norms as, "Blueprint for behaviour,
setting limit within which individual may seek alternate ways toachieve their goals".
⇒ According to Young and Mack, 'norms' refer to the

34. "group-sharedexpectations".
⇒ According to H.M. Johnson writes, "A norm is an abstract pattern held in
themind thatsets certain limits for behaviour".
⇒ According to Donald Light Jr. and Suzanne say, Norms refer to "the
rules thatguidebehaviour in everyday situations and are derived from
the value".
Social Norm
Definition as Social Norms:
Social norms or mores are the rules of behavior that are considered
acceptable in a group or society. People who do not follow these norms may
be shunned orsuffer some kind of consequence. Norms change according to
the environment or situation and may change or bemodified over time.
Characteristics of Social Norms:
The characteristics of social norms are discussed as under.
1. Social norms are universal: These are found in all societies. Social normsare the basis
19 of social order No society can function smoothly without norms.
2. Norms incorporate value-judgment: A norm is a standard shared by thegroup
members. These represent "standardized generalization" concerning expected modes
ofbehaviour. As standardized generalizations, they are
concepts which have been evaluated by the group and they incorporate
vakejudgment. In terms of value we judge whether some action is right or
wrong,good or bad, expected or unexpected.
3. Norms are relative: Norms vary from society to society. Sometimes, norms vary from
group to group within same society. Some norms do not govern the behaviour of all the
people. Norms applicable to older people are not applicableto children. Similarly, norms
applicable to policemen are different from those ofteachers.
4. All norms are not equally important: Norms are enforced by sanctions, i.e. reward and
punishment. Ba all norms are not equally strict and they do not carrythe same kind of
punishment because they differ in importance. The most important norms in society are
called "mores" and those who violate them ar severely punished. Other norms, called
"folkways' and punishments for violating them are much less severe.
5. Norms are internalized by the individuals: Norms become part of personality through
the process of socialization. Individuals internalize the norms of the society. Individuals
generally behave in accordance with the socialnorms.
Functions/Importance of Norms:

35. Functions or importance of social norms are discussed below:
1. Norm less Society is Impossibility: Norms are important part of society. Norms and
Society go together Man depends upon society for his existence. Norms make living
together in society possible. With normative order society isnot possible.
2. Norms Regulate and Guide Behaviour: Norms are controls. It is throughthem
that society regula behaviour of its members in such ways that they perform
activitiesfulfilling societal needs.
3. Norms maintain Social Order: Norms are part of social order. They arecontrols.
The social order maintained by norms. That is why it is said that human social order
isa normative order.
4. Norms Gives Cohesion to Society: Society achieves coherent structurethrough
the norms. The collective and cooperative life of people is made possible because
ofnorms. The normative system gives to soci an internalcohesion.
5. Norms Helps to have Self-control: Norms helps individuals to have self-control.
Because of constraints imposed by norms individuals conform to thenorms and
exercisediscipline by themselves over their behaviour
Folkways
Definition of folkways
❖ Folkways are a set of norms in a social system that govern commonly accepted
practices, customs, and habits that make up the fabric of everyday life.In comparison with
other norms,folkways tend to involve relatively unimportant matters of behavior and
appearance and carry sanctions that are correspondingly mild.
❖ According to Gillin and Gillin: "Folkways are behaviour patterns of everydaylife which
generally arise unconsciously is an group.”
❖ According to W. G. Summer: "When the elements of truth and right aredeveloped
into the doctrines of welfare, the folkways are raised to another plane. Then we call
them mores.".
Mores
Definition of mores:
✓ According to Maclver and Page: "When the folkways have added to theconception
of group welfare, standard of right and wrong, then they are converted into mores".
✓ According to Gillin and Gillin: "Mores are those customs and group poutiness which are
thought by the members of the society to be necessity to thegroups continued existence".
✓ According to Horton and Hunt: "By mores we mean those strong ideas ofright and
wrong require certain acts and forbid others".

36. Different Between Folkways and Mores:
Folkways Mores
1.Folkways are habits of individualsor of
a group of people which have
been accepted and followed by
itsmembers and eventually
became
1.Mores are moral customs and
traditionsthat are shared by a groupof
people that makes up a society.
2.Folkways are informal social
conventions with no moral
significance.
2.Mores are social conventions
thataremorally significance.
3.Both terms were first used
duringtheearly 1900s.
the word "folkways" was
introduced,byAmerican sociologist
William Graham Sumner.
3.While the word "mores" comes
from Latin, by American
sociologistWilliamGraham Sumner.
4.While both folkways and mores
instructpeople on how they should act,
folkways are the feelings,
thinking, and actions of a group
andareless
4.Mores, which represent the valuesof
agroup are stricker.
5.Both folkways and mores were developed from the people's habitual
actionsand not from society's laws; folkways in a way are a certain type of
mores.
Conclusion
In conclusion, social structure is composed of social institutions and patterns
of institutionalized relationships, but we also understand it as present in the
social networks that connect us, and in the interactions that fill our everyday
lives.
BEHAVIOR
Definition of Behavior:
According to Woodworth (1948)
"Behavior can be defined as any manifestation of life activity" Or,
Behavior (American English) or behaviour (Commonwealth English) is
the range ofactions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms,
systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their
environment, which includes the other systems or organisms and as
well as the(animate) physical environment.

37. Q. State the types of behaviour?
Types of behaviour :
A.
Appropria
te
behaviour
Description: Accomplishesdesired and desired goalswithout trespassing on the needs and rights
ofExample: Keeps hale and hearty eating habits:Acquires satisfaction for a work done or
problems
solved
without depreciating others.
B. Deficit
behaviou
r
• Description: Nonexistence of knowledge and skills needed for carrying out the behavior.
• Example: Active studying, note taking: passive responding in social circumstances
C. Excess
behavior
Description: Too much of a Behavior
• Example: Consuming alcohol until passed out. Eats too much and Smoking
D.
Inappropria
te behavior
Description: The behavior takes place at a place or time which is inappropriate. If
ithappened under other situations then the inappropriate behavior would be
adequate
• Example:
Exhibitionism or Bed- wetting.
E.
Maladaptive
or
emotional
behavior
Description: Skilled with performance
however has a stronger than distinctive autonomic system response, frequently it
isanxieties and fears. Example: Test ,Anxiety, shyness
Common Behavioral Theories
Skinner's Behavior Modification Theory of Motivation. (The Machine Model) (also known as
OperantConditioning):
This theory was developed out of the research by B-F Skinner Acconding to this
theory, people behave the way they do because in the past circumstances they have
learned that certain behaviorsare associated with unpleasant outcomes. Because
people generally prefer pleasant outcomes, theyare likely to repeat behavior they
have learnt on repetition of behavior that will have pleasant consequences. For
example, people in an organization are likely to obey a managers instructions
because they have learnt at home and at school that obedience to authority leads to

38. praise and disobedience leads to punishment. Thus, the frequency of various kinds
of behavior in the organizationcan be seen as contingent on the immediate
consequences of these behaviors
The consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior are positive reinforcement
(e.g praise ormonetary reward) or negative reinforcement (1.e. escape from some
adverse situation). The consequences that decrease the frequency of a behavior are
extinction (ie. ignoring the behavior) andpunishment (reprimand, fine, etc)
Pavlov believed that classical conditioning is the only principle by which all
behavior including motivation works. El. Thomdike explains behavior in terms of
reward and punishment. BF Skinner's operant conditioning or instrumental
conditioning also explains behavior in terms of reinforcement. When you teach a
child sitting, dancing, etc. correct responses are reinforced withfood or reward
andincorrect responses are ignored or punished. Social learning theorists have
developed procedures whereby people can control their own behavior by self-
reinforcement or self-punishment. Successful methods have been developed to
control abuse of alcohol or overeating by making individuals rewardthemselves
with an activity they find pleasurable when they stick to certain regimen of eating
or drinking.
Skinner's theory has been criticized on two grounds. First, it over emphasizes the
importance of externalrewards and ignores the fact that people are better motivated
by intrinsic rewards. Second, itis argued that the theory is unethical because no
authority has a right to manipulate and control employee's behavior.
Trial And Error Method/Theory of Learning Mentioned by Edward
Lee Thorndike:
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1947), the American psychologist, considered
as the father ofeducationalpsychology conducted a series of experiments (1911)
on trial and error method oflearning by animals.
Experiment
A hungry rat was set free at the entrance of a wooden maze which contained many
pathways from the entrance to the center. But all the ways except one were blocked
somewhere in the middle. A piece of bread was placed in the center of the maze.
Seeing the bread, the hungry rat rushed to get it. It happened to enter the wrong path
which was obstructed in the middle, Consequently it had to return tothe entrance but
only to try other paths till it reached the bread The next day, it made less errors. The
experiment continued for several days till the rat was able to identify the right path at
the very first glance without trying out other parts. Thorndike conducted similar
experiments on a number of animals,eg, monkeys, dogs, hens and cats. The errors
were reduced as the trials were repeated, i.e. SR connections were made. From, the
rat's experiment and several other similar experiments. Thorndike formulated certain
laws of learning. According to Thorndike all learning istrial and error.

39. Pavlov's Experiment
of Classical
Conditioning:
In Pavlov's experiment, a researcher first attached a capsule to a dog's salivary gland to measure
salivaryflow. A bell was rung, every time, the dog Sam was given the meat powder. This was
repeated several times. Later Pavlov observed that the dog salivated at the mere sound of the bell,
without the meat powder being followed. Thus, the dog had been conditioned to respond to a new
stimulus which waspreviously an unconditioned response.
The meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), salivation is the unconditioned response
(UCR)sound of the bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) and salivation at the sound of the bell inthe
conditioned response (CR). Pavlov's theory is that CS (bell) simply as a result of pairing withthe
UCS (meat powder) acquires thecapacity to substitute for the UCS in evoking the response. This
means that an association is formed between the CS and the UCS, so that CS becomes the
equivalent of the UCS in eliciting response.
Pavlov believed that this association took place in the brain. Two areas of the brain, one for the UCS
andthe other for the CS became activated during classical conditioning and the activation ofUCS
area resulted in a reflex or automatic response.
Pavlov showed us how a significant internal process such as learning can be studied objectively
✓ Reference
Jakirul Islam, Assistant Professor of Behavioral Science,
North EastNursing College.
Book: Neuron Behavioral Science, Edited by- H. Al-Hasib &
Dr. Md.Tanvir Islm.
Book: Psychology for Nurses, by BT basvanthappa.
Book: Psychology for graduate Nurses, by Wg. Cdr. Jacob Anthikad
NEURON BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE/7TH EDITION
Others Sources::
 Www.wikipedia.com,
 Www.google.com
 Www.quora.com

40. FAMILY AND LIFE CRISIS
FAMILY
Introduction of Family : Family is a group two , three or more persons living together in one home .
Family can be small ,nuclear or joint family types according to the number of members in the family .Family
relationship can be because of the variety of connections like blood ,marriage ,adoption etc amongmembers of
the family .family plays great role in preparing the new generationchild for whole life in the community .
Meaning of Family :
The family is the most important primary group in society .The family is an institution is universal .It is a
social phenomena .The family is a primary group consisting ordinary of father , mother , one or more children
and sometimes nearor distant relatives .
Definition of Family
1. According to Eliot and Merrill “Family is the biological , Social unit ,composed of
husband , wife and children” .
2. Ogburn and Nimkoff say that “family is a durable association of husband and wife or without
children or of a man or women alone ,with children”
3. According to the MacIver “ Family is a group defined by a sex
relationshipsufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation
and upbringing of children “.
4. According to the UN : The family is define in international law and policy as
“The natural and fundamental group unit of society “
5. According to sociologist : The family is an intimate domestic group of
peoplerelated to one another by bonds of blood , sexual mating or legal
ties

41.  Universal
 Emotional bias
 Limited size
 Formative influence
 Nuclear position in the
Social structure
 Responsibility of the family
 Social regulation
 The permanent and
temporary nature of the
family.
Characteristics of the family: MacIver and page mention twotypes of characteristics .
they are given below :
1. The general characteristics of the family
2. The distinctive characteristics of family
 A mating relationship
 A form of marriage
 System of nomenclature
 Selection of mates
 A way of tracing the descent
 Common residence
 An economic provision

42. Type of the family : family are classified in various ways . Theyare :
1. On the basis of marriage : It has been classified into three majortypes .
i. Polygamous or polygamous family
ii. Polyandrous family
iii. Monogamous family
2. On the basis of birth : It has been classified into two major types
i. Family of orientation
ii. Family of procreation
3. On the basis of residence : It has been classified into three types
i. Matrilocal residence :
ii. Patrilocal residence
iii. Changing residence
4. On the basis of Ancestry or descent : it has two types :
i. Matrilineal family
ii. Patrilineal family
5. On the basis of nature of relation :
i. Conjugal family
ii. Consanguine family
6. On the basis of authority : it has two types
i. Matriarchal family
ii. Patriarchal family
7. On the basis of size or structure : it has 3 types
i. Nuclear family
ii. Joint family
iii. Extended family
8. On the basis of depth generation: it has 2 types
i. Nuclear family
ii. Joint family

43. Function of the family: Family is the most important primary group in society . It is an outstanding
primary group because the childrendevelops its basic attitudes in the family . family as a social institution
performs several functions .
A. MacIver classifies its functions into two types:
A. Essential or primary functions
B. Non – essential or secondary function
C. The Essential or primary function of family are
1. Stable satisfaction of sex need .
2. Reproduction : The result of satisfaction of sex need isreproduction
3. Production and care of children : The children at this birthis completely helpless and cannot survive
without the help of family.
4. Provision of a home : Family provides the home for its members . Children are born and brought up
in homesonly .
5. Status ascribing function : that is assigned at both orassumed involuntarily later in life .
6. Affection function : It consist of complex and importantrelationships which are necessary for family
members to develops as normal socially adjusted human being s
b. Non – essential or secondary functions of the family are
1. Economic function : family fulfills all the economic needsof its members such as food , clothing
,shelter etc .
2. Educational function : Mazzin says “ That the first lessonof child is learnt between mothers kiss and
fathers care .It gives the child his /her basic training in the social attitudes and habits
3. Religious function : The family is a center for the religioustraining of the children
4. Recreational function : It serves as center of all recreational activities like singing , dancing ,
playing ,indoor games etc .
5. Protective function : Family always look after the health ofits members
B.Kingsley Davis speaks of four main functions of the family are
 Reproduction
 Maintenance
 Placement
 Socialization

44. C. Ogburn & Nimkoff have mentioned six major formations family are.
 Affectional
 Economical
 Recreational
 Protective
 Religious and
 Educational
D. Read has described four functions of the family are:
 Race perpetuation
 Socialization.
 Regulation & satisfaction of sex needs.
 Economic functions.
Nuclear family :
Definition of nuclear family: A family unit consisting of a child or children living with two parents who
are married to each other, especially when all live under the same roof is called nuclear family.
Or,
A nuclear family is a family group consisting of a pair of adults & their
children’s .

45. Function of a nuclear family:
1. Stable satisfaction of sex Need:
 The modern nuclear family continues to be the executive means ofproviding sexual Satisfaction to
its member.
 No other agency has been able to take up this task to thesatisfaction of the members.
2. Procreation and upbringing of children :
The modern family still fulfills the functions of procreation andupbringing of children
 The family is regarded Iias “ proper “ authority to produce
children and to bring them up .
3. Socialization of children :
 The modern family still remain as the main architect of socializing the new born child . the
child develops a self and apersonality of its own mainly in its family
 Most of the social norms , values and ideas are picked up bythe child in the family only
 Parents are showing more interest now –a – days giving propersocial training to their children
4. 4 .Provision of Home:
 The modern family provides for its members house to live in. Due to economic z& other.
exigencies, family members may goout for some time but they spend much of their time in the
home itself.
 It is happy place to live in both for parents and their children’s.
 The recent tread in the modern /Nuclear family:
Recent trends in the nuclear family - The family has undergone some radical changes in the past half a
country. Its structure has changed itsfunction have been altered & its nature has been affected.
 Industrialization
 Urbanization
 Democratic ideas
 The decline of the influence of mores and the religious beliefs , and the spread of secular attitude
 The spirit of individualism and romantic love
 Economic independence of woman
 Decline in birth rate
 Divorce
 Parents –youth conflict

46. Advantage of the nuclear family
1.Privacy The couple can get their privacy in the own house in
nuclear families where as you cannot get your privacyin a
joint family
People can live their own way and can do whateverthey
want to
There are no such boundaries set by elders to follow
2.Financial
stability
 When we talk about the advantages and disadvantages
of the nuclear family , then financialstability is one of
the strongest point in the nuclearfamily
One can be financially strong because of limited
expenses. There is less number of people in the
nuclear family and hence less expenses
3.Freedom  The elders restricts younger’s not to do certain task
because they think this not good for them. But
today’s generation is very smart. They know what
isgood and bad for them and have enough
analytical power so they don’t like to restrict
themselves.
 Instead , they want their freedom so that they
cando and achieve whatever they want in their
life

47. Disadvantage of nuclear family:
1.No Care  If the parents are working and children
suffered from any small or big disease, then one
needs to deal with it alone as they don’t have
elders and their family member to take care of .
 This is the major disadvantages of the
nuclearfamily
 On is alone and feels even sicker when he sees
no one around
Problem tochildren  If the child small and needs special care ,then at
that point , parents will definitely find the nuclear
family not good enough
 They will always think that if they were in a joint
family then this condition would never arise as
they have other family members who can take
care of the child and in the meantime they can
do their work
4.Ease inmoving When you have a nuclear family , you face
powerproblems while shifting from a house
You can manage your things according to
youwithout disturbing the lives of other
people
This is one of the major advantages of the
nuclearfamily
5.Avoidance of stress
and discomfort
Some people are emotional. They cannot
tolerateany kind of fun that is on them and in
the joint family ,one need to have much high
patience .
But , nuclear families has the advantage that if
youlive in the company of those with whom you
are very comfortable then there is no need to take
anystress and your discomfort also get vanished
in a
moment

48. Security and
safety
 Security is one another disadvantage in the
nuclear family ,people feel insecure in the
nuclear family
 There are so many cases of robbery and murders
and many of them are nuclear family member , as
it is easier to grab someone who lives alone in
a house or with less number of people
No support  When we talk about the advantages and
disadvantages of nuclear family , support is the
think one will always miss
 If there is an argument between the couple then
therein no one to support anyone of them
 They have to deal with their problem alone
without any support
 Sometimes due to open nature and ego , the fight
results in divorce or separation because there was
no one to make them understand the
basis of a relationship
Joint family
Joint family is also known as undivided family and sometimes as extended family. It normally
consists of members who at least belong tothree generations, Husband and wife, their married
and un-married children, their married and unmarried grandchildren.

49. Definition of Joint family
According to Kim Kapadia, "Joint family is a group formed not only of acouple and their children, but also
other relations either from father's side of from mother's side depending on whether the Joint family is
patrilineal or matrilineal .
Characteristics of Joint family:
Common residence:
Characteristic feature of the Joint family. It implies that all themembers live together one roof.
The traditional Bangladeshi Joint family consisted of several familyunits. But although units lived
house together in a single house .
2. Common Property:
Another significant feature of the Joint family is that the membershold Property, both movable and
immovable in common.
The head of the household also maintain common fund, which pullstogether the earnings of all the
members.
3. Joint Kitchen:-
The Presence of a joint family is also felt due to the existence of acommon kitchen the spouse of
the head of the family or an aged woman of the family acts as the supervisor of the other female
members working in the kitchen.
Advantages of Joint family:-
 Stable and durable: - The Joint family is more stable and durablethen the single Unit family or
the nuclear family.
 Ensures economic Progress:- The Joint family meets the basic needsof its members food, clothing and
shelter – a first condition of economic Progress.
 Ensure economic of expenditure: saving are Possible here since thehousehold Purchas are done
jointly.
 Provides social security:. The Joint family gives social security to theweak, aged, sick, infirm the
unable, the disabled. And such other needy Persons.
 Provide reaction also:- The Joint family is in ideal place of reactionfor all the members.

50. Disadvantage of Joint family
1.Society is the sufferer  In a joint family , members do notput in
maximum affords
 There for, their full potentials arenot realized.
As a results society suffers
2.In perpetuates orthodoxy
The head of the family is generally theold man who is
not ready to accept changes and break customs and
traditions which the family is pursuingfor years
3.Leads to quarrels  A joint family is usually unwieldy
.Temperaments of members arebound to differ
and in an unwieldy family, time and again
interest of the members in one way or the other
is bound to be forgotten
 This leads to family disputes.

51. Comparison between
joint family and
nuclear family:
Traits Joint family Nuclear family
Description
A type of
extended family
composed of
parents , and
their
children’s, spouses and
offspring in one
household
A social unit composed of
two parents and oneor more
children
Qualities
Joint family is
mostly helpful in
developing good
qualities of the
individual
In a nuclear family , it isnot
necessary that parents can’t
develop good qualities in
their children , but yes it is
true that this becomes
difficult at times
Emotion
The primary emotion
is a general
affectionate bond
between two
generations and within
the members of the
generations
Nuclear family is mainly
based upon the emotional of
parental love and sibling
connection and hence the
structural functionalism is
fairly
straightforward
Freedom Joint family have less
freedom
Nuclear family have
more freedom
Financial needs-
Youngster
prefer
Joint family has less
financial needs
Youngsters who
prefer social life with
Nuclear family has more
financial need.youngsters
prefer
freedom and less

52. MARRIAGE
Concept of marriage
• Marriage is about love between two people
• It is a fundamental building block of all human civilization
• The government recognizes marriage as an institution that benefits thepublic good.
Definition of Marriage
★According to Horton and Hunt: “Marriage is the approved socialpattern where by two or more person
establish a family”
★According to Milinowski : " marriage is a contact for the productionand Maintenance of children "
A relationship in which one person is always right and the other person isthe husband.
Importance of Marriage in social life:
Marriage is the Union of one man and one woman. It is personal but notprivate relationship with Great public
significance. Marriage is good for the couple. It also provides the optimal conditions for bearing and raising
children. Marriage makes as essential contribution to the common good.Some specific benefits are identified
below
Marriage and health :
 On average, Husbands and wives are healthiest, happier andenjoy longer live than those
who are not married.
 Men appear to reap the physical health benefits from marriage and suffer the greatest health
consequences if theydivorce.

53. Marriage and wealth :
 Married couples build more wealth on average than singles orcohabiting couples.
 Married men earn money than do single man with similareducation and job histories.

54.  Married women are economically better of than divorce,cohabiting or never married
women.
Marriage and children :
 Children raised by their own married mother and father are.
 Less likely to be poor or to experience persistent economicinsecurity.
 More likely to stay school, have fewer behavioral and attendance problems, and earn
four year College degrees.
 less vulnerable to serious emotional illness, depression andsuicide
 More likely to have positive attitudes towards marriage andgreater success in forming
losing marriage.
Marriage and society:
 The institution of marriage reliable creates the social, economic and effective
conditions for effective parenting
O Being married changes people's life styles and habits in waysthat are personally behavior.
 Marriage generates social Capital, The social bonds createdthrough marriage yield
benefits not only for the family but for other as well, including the larger society.
Marriage may have the following characteristics:
 Marriage is a universal social institution. It is found in almost allsocieties and at all Stage of
development
 Marriage is a permanent bond between husband and wife. It is a designed to fulfill the social,
psychological, biological and religious aims.
 Marriage is specific relationship between two individuals ofopposite sex and based on
mutual right and obligations. Relationship is enduring
 Marriage requires social approval. The relationship betweenmen and women must have
social approval. Without which marriage is not valid
 Marriage establishes family. Family helps in providing facilitiesfor the procreation and upbringing
of children
 Marriage creates mutual obligations between husband and wife. The couple fulfill their mutual
obligations on the basis of customsor rules
 .Marriage regulates sex relationship according to proscribedcustoms and laws
 Marriage has certain symbols like ring, vermilion, special cloths,and special sign before the
house etc.

55. Functions of marriage
1. Procreation of children
2. Sex regulation
3. Children Socialization
4. Provide legal parents to children
5. Give economic security to women
6. Provide social security to women
7. Increase Manpower
8. Establishes joint fund
9. Fulfillment of basic needs
10. Population of the lineage
Classification of marriage:
 On the basis of number of mates :
On the basis of number of mate’s marriage maybe classified into three
types .Such as Monogamy, Polygamy, and Endogamy or group marriage
.This can be known from the following diagram.

56. Monogamy:

57. Monogamy is the form of marriage in which one man marriage one women. He/she can remarry another in the
circumstances of divorce ordeath of partner. This is the most common type of marriage present in the world.
*Greek: Monos (one) + Gamos (marriage)
Monogamy is of two types. Such as
1. Serial Monogamy 2.Non-Serial Monogamy
1) Serial Monogamy: When a person has a series of serious relationships,often made official through
marriage, and often then leading to divorce and remarriage.
2) Non-Serial Monogamy: In case of non-serial monogamy the questionof remarriage does not arise by
either of the couple. Here a spouse hasthe same single spouse throughout his life.
Advantage of Monogamy Marriage:
However, Monogamy is an ideal or best form of marriage because ofits different advantages which are
as follows:
 It is suitable for all society and for all levels of people.
 It provides better sex satisfaction to both husband and wife.
 It promotes better understanding between the spouses.
 Children are taken proper care by parents.
Disadvantage of Monogamy Marriage:
The only disadvantages of monogamy are divorce which is resulted dueto the monogamous boredom.
Polygamy:

58. Polygamy is a type of marriage in which there is plurality of partners .It allows a man to marry more than one
woman or more women to marryone man or more men at a time.
Polygamy is of Three types, such as
 Polygyny
 Polyandry
 Endogamy or Group Marriage
Polygyny/Polygene: Polygene , marriage in which two or morewomen share a husband.
Polygene , the marriage of a man and two or more women at the sametime ,includes analogous sororal form.
Polygene is of two types, such as
Sororal Polygene
Non-Sororal Polygene
(A) Sororal Polygene: It is a type of marriage in which a man issimultaneously married to one or
more of his wife's sisters.
 Sororal Polygene is often called as sororate .The Latin word 'Soror'stands for "Sister".
(B) Non-Sororal Polygene : It is just opposite of the Sororal polygene
,when a man marriages several women at a time who are not necessarilysister to each other it is known as non-
Sororal polygene.
Polyandry: Polyandry is a form of polygamy in which a women takestwo or more husbands at the same time
Polyandry is of two types, such as
 Fraternal Polyandry
 Non-Fraternal Polyandry
1) Fraternal Polyandry: When several brothers share a common/onewife it is called
fraternal polyandry.
2) Non-Fraternal Polyandry: It is just opposite of fraternal polyandry.In this, all the husband
of women are not necessarily brothers.
Endogamy or Group Marriage: Endogamy is otherwise known as group marriage. In this type of marriage,
means mutual marriage between several men and several women /in this type of marriage of men marry a
group of women at a time. There are four well known typesof endogamy

59. Cast
sub-cast
Varna
Tribal endogamy
On the basis of choice of mate or on the basis of mate selection
Marriage maybe divided into two types:
i. Endogamous marriage
ii. Exogamous marriage
On the basis of mate:
i. Exogamy It is just opposite to the endogamy marriage system.This a sound marriage system
which leads to the creation of healthy and intelligent children
ii. Exogamy means marriage outside a creation groupFor example: A Muslim
marring a Hindu
Life crisis
Meaning of life crisis:
A period of distress and major adjustment associated with a of a significant life experience, such as divorce
or death family member. Instudies relating health to life crises, individuals experiencing recent major stress
– producing experiences are more likely than others to show significant alterations in mental and physical
health status.

60. Definition of life crisis:
According to caplan 1961"People are in a state of crisis when they faceand obstacle to important life goals
and obstacle that is, for a time, Insurmountable by the use of customary methods of problem
-solving."
According to James and Gilliland, 2001"Life crisis is a perception orexperience of an event or
situation as an intolerable difficulty that exceeds the Person's current resources and coping
mechanisms."
According to Lillibridge and Klukken, 1978 “An upset in equilibrium atthe failure of one's traditional
problem-solving approach which resultsin, hopelessness, sadness, confusion and Panic.
Erikson Theory:
According to Erikson, “ A crisis is an existential challenge people experience several times throughout
their lives and such experienceswill influence people’s personality and identity development”.
Types of a life crisis: There are There Types:
1. Developmental crisis
2. Situational crisis
3. Existential crisis
1. Developmental crisis: Developmental crisis occurs as part of theprocess of growing and
developing through various periods of life.
Sometimes a crisis as a predictable part of the life cycle . such as thecrisis described in Erikson stages of
Psychological development.
2. Situational crisis: Situational crisis are sudden and unexpected,such as accidents and natural
disasters. Getting in a car accident , experiencing a flood on earthquake, or being the victim of a
crime are just a few types of situational crises
3. Existential crisis: Existential crisis are inner conflicts related to thingssuch as life purpose,
direction and spirituality. A midlife crisis is one example of a crisis that is often rooted in existential
concerns.

61. Signs of a crisis:
iii. change in weight
iv. Decreased Performance at school or work
v. Dramatic shifts in sleep habits
vi. Neglect of personal hygiene
vii. sudden changes in mood
viii. with drawl from normal activities
Definition of family life cycle:
The emotional and intellectual stages you pass through from childhoodto your retirement years as a member
of a family are called the family life cycle
The Stages of Family Life Cycle:
Stage 1: Family of origin experiences:
During this phase the main tasks are:
 Maintaining relationships with parents, siblings and peers
 Completing education
 Developing the foundations of a model of family life
Stage 2: Leaving home
During this phase the main tasks are:
 Differentiation of self from family of origin and parents anddeveloping adult to adult
relationships with parents
 Developing intimate peer relationships
 Beginning work, developing work identity and financialindependence.