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2.0 General Ledger 
Concepts 
Technofunctional Body of Knowledge 
Chartered Technofunctional Institute 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 1 
 
2.0	General	Ledger	Concepts	
 
Chartered Techno functional Institute brings to you Techno functional Body of Knowledge                                                       
series on General Ledger under the process area of Finance. 
This tutorial is brought to you by www.technofunc.com , a website dedicated to the profession of 
Techno Functional Professionals, helping technical experts gain functional and business expertise.  All 
videos are available at website www.technofunc.com for free. 
In this tutorial we will learn the important concepts used in General Ledger and their role in I T 
Projects/E R P’s. Understand the building blocks of a good and effective General Ledger system. This will 
provide us with the understanding of the key functional areas of any General Ledger System and will be 
beneficial to any professional working on a project that includes General Ledger.  
The intended audience for this tutorial is anybody who wants to understand the GL Concepts 
irrespective of their IT background. This will be helpful to everyone who wants to understand the basics 
of any effective accounting systems. For Information Technology professionals this overview lesson 
relates the GL concepts to automated accounting systems and will help them understand the 
requirements more effectively, while working on financial technology projects. 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
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TechnoFunc is on a mission to create “Technology Independent Expertise”.  
Let’s start the lesson and move to first topic on GL Concepts and what we will be learning in this tutorial. 
2.1	GL	Concepts:	
 
In this part of this series we will focus on GL Concepts in detail to build strong conceptual foundation. 
During this tutorial we will be doing a deep dive into the following concepts to help you understand 
what they mean: 
1. Accounting Periods and Calendars. 
2. Adjustment Period. 
3. Currency – Functional and Foreign. 
4. Chart of Accounts. 
5. Journals – Entry and Import. 
6. Posting & Balances. 
7. Review and Approval. 
8. Accruals and Reversals. 
9. Recurring Journals. 
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10. Allocations. 
11. Intercompany. 
12. Trial Balance. 
This tutorial is intended to give those of you who are not familiar with the operation of a general ledger, 
basic knowledge about its operation and functionalities, as well as some explanation of commonly used 
accounting concepts. We have purposefully abstained from the basic double‐entry book keeping 
concepts in this tutorial and will focus on key functionalities expected out of any automated general 
ledger system.  
This tutorial focuses on these concepts from the perspective of an I T professional who is expected to 
work on any project involving design, build or interface to an automated GL system, rather than a 
student of accounting.  
At the end of this chapter, combined with the functional knowledge acquired in Chapter 1 on General 
Ledger Fundamentals, you will acquire a basic understanding of GL Functionalities, GL Processes, 
Understanding of Steps in GL Processes and what activities they do supplement with some important 
concepts in GL and Accounting. We will close this chapter by making you understand what a trial 
balance is and in the next chapter we will have a deep dive on some key accounts that make the 
foundation of accounting as well as any General Ledger system. Any good technical or techno‐functional 
consultant will be able to understand the major GL Setups of any automated accounting package after 
this foundation. Our later chapters will enable you to acquire mastery in these concepts as we explain 
each one of them in greater detail. 
We hope that understanding these concepts in detail will help you truly understand the business 
requirements and equip you with the necessary functional knowledge to build effective and sustainable 
I T solutions. 
Let’s move to next topic to understand Accounting Periods and Accounting Calendars. 
   
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2.2	Accounting	Periods	and	Calendars:	
 
Accounting Period in bookkeeping is the period with reference to which accounting books of any entity 
are prepared. It is the period for which books are balanced and the financial statements are prepared.  
Natural Calendar: Generally, the accounting period consists of 12 months and might follow the natural 
calendar. Natural Calendar follows the natural sequence of months from January to December.  
Special Calendar: Any calendar not following the natural months is “Special Calendar”, for example, like 
the special calendar from “April to March” in some countries. In some countries the beginning of the 
accounting period differs according to the jurisdiction. For example in India the prescribed accounting 
year is from April to March. The Australian government's financial year begins on July 1 and concludes 
on June 30 of the following year. The Financial Year in Costa Rica spans from October 1 until September 
30 of the following year. 
Fiscal Calendar: The International Financial Reporting Standards allows up‐to period of 52 weeks as an 
accounting period also known as “Fiscal Calendar”. Large number of companies use 52 weeks fiscal 
calendar for their reporting and financial tracking purposes. Many companies find that it is convenient 
for purposes of comparison and also for accurate stock taking to always end their fiscal year on the 
same day of the week, where local legislation permits. Thus some fiscal years will have 52 weeks and 
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others 53. Fiscal years vary between businesses and countries. Fiscal year may also refer to the year 
used for financial reporting or for Income Tax Reporting. 
4–4–5 Calendar: It is another method of managing accounting periods. It is common calendar structure 
for some industries, like retail, manufacturing and parking industry. 4–4–5 calendar divides a year into 4 
quarters. Each quarter has 13 weeks which are grouped into two 4‐week "months" and one 5‐week 
"month". The grouping of 13 weeks may be set up as 5–4–4 weeks or 4–5–4 weeks, but the 4–4–5 is the 
most common arrangement. Its major advantages over a regular calendar is that the end date of the 
period is always the same day of the week, which is useful for shift or manufacturing planning, and in 
this calendar every period is the same length. Each accounting period for one business year corresponds 
to the same accounting period in the previous year, and the next year. This helps in comparative analysis 
and provides a review and forecast tool for management.  
52–53‐Week Fiscal Calendar: It is a variation of the 4–4–5 calendar. It is used by companies that want 
their fiscal year to end on the same day of the week. Any day of the week may be used as the ending 
day, and use of Saturday and Sunday is common as this facilitates counting inventory and other year end 
accounting activities due to business holiday. Some major drawbacks for non‐calendar periods are: 
 These calendars result in 364 days (13 periods X 4 weeks X 7 days per week) and there are 365 
days in a year. This shortfall of 1 day each year needs adjustment.   
 Bank statements are usually done on a monthly basis and can make the bank reconciliations 
process a little complicated. 
 Some expenses are billed on a monthly basis.  You might need to make adjustments for these 
types of expenses. 
Transaction Calendar for Average Balancing: Some industries like banking needs to maintain their 
average daily balances. They need to define their transaction calendars specifying each valid business 
days for which the average balances needs to be calculated and maintained in General Ledger.  
Calendar Adjustments: Large corporations conduct their businesses across the globe spanning multiple 
countries. In some jurisdictions or countries, the accounting books needs to be maintained as per the 
rules prescribed by the local laws of that country. Parent company being the owner of the subsidiary 
units operating in different countries, need to consolidate its results for reporting in its base country of 
registration. As the units, that are part of the same group of businesses, are not maintaining the same 
fiscal year in their local books, consolidating company need to adjust for transactions between units 
with different fiscal years. This adds complexity to consolidation processes and automated general 
ledgers help manage these complicated adjustments. 
E R P tools provide you with the flexibility to define more than 12 accounting periods in a financial year. 
As a best practice companies using automated general ledgers define adjustment periods in their 
accounting calendars. They put one accounting period as "Year Open" period to clear carried over 
balances from last financial year and last period as "Year Close" where adjustment transactions are 
made for the same financial year. These periods are generally known as “Adjustment Periods”. We will 
discuss the concept of adjustment periods in detail in the next page.   
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2.3	Adjustment	Period:		
 
In most of the automated financial systems you can define more than 12 accounting periods in a 
financial year. They put one accounting period as "Year Open Period” to clear “carried over balances” 
from last financial year and last period as "Year Close Period" where adjustment transactions are made 
for the same financial year. These periods are generally known as “Adjustment Periods”, sometimes are 
also referred to as “Zero Periods”.  Most E R P’s provide the functionality to define adjustment periods. 
Benefits of Adjustment Periods: 
“Opening Adjustment Period”: Adjustment period at the beginning of the year helps tracks opening 
balances and transactions. At the beginning of the year you can create journals to transfer all your 
opening balances for the current year. Generally there is an overlap between the opening of the new 
financial year and finalization of audit of the previous year. This results in creation of many adjustment 
entries in the previous year that has an impact on the opening balances of the current year. You can 
capture those adjustments in a separate “opening adjustment period” to keep a complete track of your 
normal and adjustment entries. The starting period “Zero” is used to store the starting balance for each 
balance sheet account.   
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“Closing Adjustment Period”: Similarly, defining an adjustment period at the close of the year helps 
track closing balances and adjustment transactions. Multiple closing periods allow production of 
financial statements reflecting various stages of closing and are helpful in providing complete audit trail.  
This helps controlling any back dated entries in the main accounting periods.  
Tracking Errors & Omissions: Errors and Omissions discovered after the year close, can be corrected by 
passing relevant entries in the Adjustment Period once the main period has been closed as per the 
company yearend policy.  
Stat to Management Reconciliation: Adjustment Period can also be used to track reconciliation entries. 
Large corporations need to pass many reconciliation entries to tally their Statutory and Main 
Consolidation Books. Adjustment period is useful in tracking the entries made to reconcile the 
consolidation books with the Local Country Books.  
Exclusion for Management Reporting: After the close of the books, a large number of entries like 
accounting entries for accrual or provisions need to be made in the accounting books to comply with the 
accounting standards and legal regulations. Management however is generally interested in operational 
data to do their planning and forecasting activities. By limiting adjustment and statutory entries to 
adjustment period management reports can be driven from same accounting books by excluding 
adjustment periods from the reports. 
Challenges: Adjustment periods have some inherent challenges.  
 Automated Accounting Packages comes with many standard reports. You might need to 
evaluate the impact of adjustment periods on these reports.  
 While reversing journal entries; users need to take precaution to select the period in which they 
want the reversals to happen. E R P’s by default might select the adjustment period.  
 You may need to decide whether adjustment period should be included or excluded in your 
comparative reports. 
 Similarly you may need to decide whether adjustment period need to be included in any 
management reports, especially the ones that can be compared with your statutory published 
results. 
Diagram: Figure at the right gives a pictorial representation of a calendar with 13 effective periods 
having one adjustment period at the year end. While reporting your financial results you need to include 
your beginning of the year adjustment period with the first calendar period and your last adjustment 
period with the last reporting period. 
Alternate Solution: Defining adjustment periods is totally optional and decision must be based on 
company’s requirement on the factors discussed above. Alternate solution to defining adjustment 
periods could be to define a separate cost center (department, division, profit center etc.). All year‐end 
adjustment entries are made using this cost center and this unit is included for statutory consolidation 
but excluded for management reporting. 
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2.4	Currency:	
 
What is Currency?: 
Currency is the generally accepted form of money which is issued by a government and circulated within 
an economy. Currency is used as a medium of exchange for goods and services. Every nation has its own 
currency and global trade results in exchange of currencies of different countries. Currency is the basis 
for trade and when the trade involves two different countries, generally two different currencies come 
to play. To obtain another country’s currency, it is necessary to buy it using the appropriate exchange 
rate and the price of a currency compared to another is called the exchange rate. 
What is Exchange Rate?. 
Exchange Rate is the price of one country's currency expressed in terms of another country's currency. 
In other words, the rate at which one currency can be bought or exchanged for another currency. For 
example, the higher the exchange rate for one Euro in terms of one Dollar, the lower is the relative value 
of the Dollar.  Exchange rates are determined by the foreign exchange market, where continuous 
trading happens between a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers. There are different types 
of rates that get referenced with respect to General Ledger. The Spot Exchange Rate refers to the 
current exchange rate. The Forward Exchange Rate refers to an exchange rate that is quoted and traded 
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today but for delivery and payment on a specific future date.  Historical Exchange Rate refers to the 
exchange rate prevalent on the date of the original transaction. 
What is Accounting Currency and Functional Currency?: 
Accounting Currency is the monetary unit used while recording transactions in company's financial 
books. “Accounting Currency” is also known as “Functional Currency” and is the main currency used by 
a business entity. It is the monetary unit of account of the principal economic environment in which an 
economic entity operates. This is the environment in which an entity primarily generates and expends 
cash. 
The accounting currency may not necessarily be same as the transacting currency. “Transacting 
Currency” is the currency which customers see and deal with when conducting a transaction, such as a 
sale. Companies are likely to use their home country's currency (Accounting Currency) when recording 
transactions, even if the sale was denominated in some other currency (Foreign Currency) 
For example, a US Company conducting business in India will most likely use “US Dollar(USD)” as the 
accounting currency, even if sales transactions are conducted using the “Indian Rupee(INR)”. In this 
scenario US Dollar is the accounting currency and Indian Rupee is the transacting currency. 
For companies having operations in different countries across the globe, managing multiple currencies 
could be a complicated task due to the interplay of foreign exchange rates and need to make 
conversions from one currency to another. Whenever the business entities enter into transactions 
(sales, payments, etc.) in multiple currencies, for the purposes of accounting, these items needs to be 
converted into accounting currency (functional currency) at an appropriate exchange rate. Transactions 
are often converted at the spot rate, i.e., the rate of exchange between the transacting currency and the 
functional/accounting currency on the date of the transaction. Sometimes local laws/corporate policy 
determine the exchange rate to be used for this conversion. 
What is Foreign Currency?: 
From business perspective “Foreign Currency” is the currency of another country. From accounting 
systems perspective any Currency other than the Accounting Currency is a Foreign Currency. For a 
company that maintains its accounting books in US Dollars any other currency apart from US Dollars is a 
foreign currency and needs to be converted to US Dollars for recording transaction in the financial 
books. 
Multi‐Currency Concepts.: 
Applicability of multi‐currency creates a need to understand some foreign currency concepts like 
Conversion and Translation, Revaluation and Foreign Currency Exchange Gain and Loss. These concepts 
require broader discussion and have been covered in our tutorial on Multi‐Currency Concepts. 
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2.5	Chart	of	Accounts.:	
 
A chart of accounts (COA) is list of the accounts used by a business entity to record and categorize 
financial transactions. COA is used to organize the finances of the entity and to segregate expenditures, 
revenue, assets and liabilities in order to give interested parties a better understanding of the financial 
health of the entity.  
In ERP’s COA’s are captured using a defined segmented structure. Segmented COA Structure enables a 
business entity to record other accounting dimensions pertaining to financial transaction. Examples of 
accounting dimensions are Company, Cost Center, Department, Product etc. Figure on the right shows 
an example of the Segmented Chart of Accounts Structure using some of the commonly used business 
dimensions. 
Thorough planning and evaluation of financial needs is perquisite to designing a good COA Structure. We 
have created separate tutorial on GL Accounts that helps you understand the concept of Natural 
Accounts and some key GL Accounts. There is a full tutorial on the understanding COA in detail and best 
practices to define an effective COA Structure. 
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2.6	Journals:	Entry	&	Import:	
 
Journals can either be directly entered in General Ledger or can be imported from Sub Ledgers. Most of 
the journals are created along‐with business transactions like sales, purchases, receipts and payments 
and get recorded in respective sub‐ledgers. From sub‐ledgers they need to be imported to general 
ledger for financial recording and reporting. 
While importing journals from Sub Ledgers, journals can be clubbed together for same accounts and 
posted in General Ledger as summarized.  This prevents too many transactions in GL Accounts and 
transactions get clubbed based on GL or Transaction Source. 
ERP’s has built in validations during the import process to ensure that the data is correct and complete. 
Journal Entries can also be created manually in the General Ledger by entering all the relevant 
accounting information. ERP’s can also automate certain type of Journal Entries like recurring, reversing 
or allocating journals. 
Most ERP’s and Automated Accounting Systems provide ability to upload journals using the MS Excel 
worksheet. You can create journals in Excel Template and upload directly to General Ledger. 
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2.7	Journals:	Posting	and	Balances:	
 
Journal Postings is the process to update (post) the details of transactions into the database, perform 
calculations and update account balances impacted from the transaction(s).  
During the posting process most accounting systems validates the Journal Entry for completeness and 
accuracy. Example of validations performed are – Correct Accounting Period, Balanced JE (Debit=Credit) 
or Valid Accounts 
During the posting process the system applies the values in the journal entry to the database resulting in 
accounting data getting appended to the numbers in the database. Journals once posted cannot be 
edited or modified. Ideal business process is to reverse these entries if any corrections need to be made. 
In the example above in the first box the journal is entered. Once the journal is entered, it is available in 
the systems for Review, Approval and Posting. As this point current balances in the accounts are not 
impacted. Next three boxes depict that as the journal gets posted, the current balances are updated to 
show the impact of the entered transaction. Hence posting is the process to update account balances 
with the transaction amount. 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 13 
 
2.8	Journals:	Review	&	Approval:	
 
Internal Control principle of “Segregation of Duties” requires all the Journal Entries to be reviewed and 
approved by competent authority, other than the person creating the entry. Review and Approval must 
happen before the journal is posted and balances are updated.   
ERP Systems provide review capabilities by providing a workflow framework to route these transactions 
to appropriate used based on the rules defined in the system. Automatic notifications are sent to the 
person who needs to take action.  
Review and Approval mechanisms ensure:  
 The transaction is reasonable, necessary and comply with applicable policies  
 The amounts are correct, allowable for the account, allocable, and properly coded  
 Charges are appropriately documented and are recorded in a consistent manner  
 Funds are available in the account being charged 
 Reduces the risk of error, waste, or wrongful acts or inappropriate, unauthorized or fraudulent 
activities 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 14 
 
2.9	Accruals	and	Reversals:	
 
ACCRUALS	
There are two commonly used methods of accounting ‐ Cash Basis and the Accruals Basis.  In cash basis 
of accounting income is recognized in books when it is received in cash, and expenses are offset when 
they are actually paid.  
Contrary to Cash Basis Accounting, in Accrual Basis Accounting, financial items are accounted when they 
are earned and deductions are claimed when expenses are incurred, irrespective of the actual cash flow. 
Accrual accounting method measures the financial performance of a company by recognizing accounting 
events regardless of when corresponding cash transactions occur. Accrual follows the matching principle 
in which the revenues are matched (or offset) to expenses in the accounting period in which the 
transaction occurs rather than when payment is made (or received). 
Accrual accounting is considered to be the standard accounting practice for most companies and is the 
most widely used accounting method in the automated accounting system. This method provides a 
more accurate picture of the company's current condition, but as all income and expenses need to be 
recognized based on their occurrence and matching, it is relatively complex when compared to cash 
accounting, which recognizes transactions only when there is an exchange of cash. The need for this 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 15 
 
method arose out of the increasing complexity of business transactions and investor demand for more 
timely and accurate financial information.  
To help you understand this concept let’s look at an example. A company has sold merchandise on 
credit to a customer who is credit worthy and there is absolute certainty that the payment will be 
received in the future. The company earns a profit of $500 on the total sales price of $2000. The 
accounting for this transaction will be different in the two methods. The revenue generated by the sale 
of the merchandise will only be recognized by the cash method when the money is received by the 
company which might happen next month or next year.  However in the Accrual Method the revenue 
will be recognized in the same period, an “Accounts Receivable” will be created to track future credit 
payments from the customer. 
Based on the above discussion now let’s take a look at some accrual/deferral related concepts: 
 Accrued revenue is an asset, such as unpaid proceeds from a delivery of goods or services, when 
such income is earned and a related revenue item is recognized, while cash is to be received in a 
latter period. 
 Accrued expense, in contrast, is a liability with an uncertain timing or amount, but where the 
uncertainty is not significant enough to qualify it as a provision. 
 As an accounting practice expense and revenue accruals are reversed in the next accounting 
period to prevent double booking of expenses/revenues when they gets settled in cash. 
REVERSALS	
At the beginning of each accounting period, there is an accounting practice to use reversing entries to 
cancel out the adjusting/accrual entries that were made to accrue revenues and expenses at the end of 
the previous accounting period. Use of Reversing Entries makes it easier to record subsequent 
transactions by eliminating the possibility of duplication. 
 Reversing entries are made on the first day of an accounting period in order to offset adjusting 
accrual/provision entries made in the previous accounting period. 
 Reversing entries are used to avoid the double booking of revenues or expenses when the 
accruals/provisions are settled in cash. 
 A reversing entry is linked to the original adjusting entry and is written by reversing the position 
of debits with credits and vice versa. 
 Net impact of Original Entry and Reversing Entry on the accounting books is always zero. 
 In Automated Accounting Systems, it is not possible to delete transactions once the posting has 
been made. In such systems reversals is the recommended way to correct the erroneous 
entries.  An example is that one interface feed has been posted by mistake twice. This has 
inflated many income expense accounts. A reversing entry with opposite debit and credit 
amounts to all the impacted accounts will nullify the impact of the mistake. 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 16 
 
2.10	Reversing	Journal	Entry:	
 
This is a simple example of a reversing entry: 
The business has taken premises on rent. The rent payable for each month is $200 and invoice is raised 
by the landlord on 15th
 of the subsequent month. Accounting department takes 5 days to process the 
payment and deposit the amount in the Landlord’s account. December is the close of the accounting 
year and invoice of rent for the month of December will be received by the company on 15th
 of January 
and payment will be made by 20th
 of January.  
Closing Books: On 31st
 of December, the accounting department passes the rent accrual accounting 
entry, debiting the “Rent Expense” and crediting the “Rent Payable Account”. This entry records the rent 
for the month of Dec and creates a liability for “Rent Payable” to landlord next month. At the beginning 
of next accounting year, on the day one this entry is reversed by debiting the “Rent Payable” and 
crediting the “Rent Account”.  
Making Payment: Once the payment for Rent is made on 20th
 January (Again by Debiting “Rent 
Expense” and Crediting “Bank Account”) this reversal will ensure that the rent for last year is not 
impacting the current year financials as the net impact on the “Rent Expense” account will be zero. 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 17 
 
2.11	Recurring	Journals:	
 
What is a Recurring Journal?. 
A “Recurring Journal” is a journal that needs to be repeated and processed periodically.  Recurring 
Entries are business transactions that are repeated regularly, such as fixed rent or insurance to be paid 
every month.  
Recurring entries allow for common repeatable transactions to be saved in a template and created in 
multiple accounting periods upon request, making it unnecessary to retype the entire transaction 
thereby improving productivity. Auto generation of recurring accounting entries minimizes the 
occurrence of errors and omissions. Systems allow generation of recurring entries at weekly, monthly or 
any other frequency.  
Characteristics of Recurring Journals: 
 Needs to be entered periodically 
 Same set of accounts are included every period 
 Same number of Journal Lines 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 18 
 
Recurring Journals can be created by having: 
 Same Account Combinations with no amounts: 
o This is useful when same accounts needs to be used every period however the amounts 
get changed every time. In this scenario the template is defined with no amounts and 
amounts are entered manually every accounting period for which the entry needs to be 
generated. 
 Same Account Combinations with fixed amounts: 
o This is useful when both accounts and amounts can be pre‐determined. A good example 
for this scenario is fixed rent payable each month on a specific date. In this case the 
template is defined with actual amounts and journals are created and posted for 
relevant accounting periods. 
 Same Account Combinations with mathematical logic to calculate amounts: 
o This is useful when accounts can be pre‐determined and amounts will be based on some 
logic or pre‐defined formula. A good example for this scenario could be defining 
salesmen accounts as the pre‐determined accounts. Commission is to be paid to these 
salesmen as a fixed percentage of sales made by each salesman during the month and 
sales for each salesman are recorded in separate accounts. A recurring journal can be 
defined that can look for the balance in respective sales accounts at the end of period 
and automatically calculate commission and create the required accounting entry for 
commission payable.  
Examples of Recurring Journals 
 Fixed Rent to be paid every month 
 Fixed Insurance to be paid every month 
 Leasing Payments 
 Amortization Expenses 
 Fixed Expenses 
 Payroll Expenses 
 Based on Usage – Like departmental allocation of rent based on space utilized 
Generic Process to Create Recurring Journals: 
1. Define Accounts, Amounts or Formula or Logic 
2. Create Recurring Template 
3. Define the accounting periods for which the recurring journals need to be created 
4. Generate Journals by Running automated recurring journals creation program 
5. Enter missing data in case of Skelton journals – missing amounts 
6. Review, Edit, Approve and Post recurring journals   
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 19 
 
2.12	Allocations:	
 
Allocation is the act of distributing according to a plan. 
Examples of Allocation: 
 Distributing rent to departments based on area 
 Distributing common project costs to various cost centers 
 Distributing head office expenses to sales offices based on volume of sales 
In the example shown here we have a company which has taken a 1000 square feet office space on rent. 
The expenses for rent are borne by the head‐office and payment to the landlord is also made by the 
head office. To know the true profitability of each of the departments (Department A, B & C) the rent 
needs to be allocated to each one of them. 
Each department occupies different area and company has taken the measurement of the areas 
occupied by each of the department. In the example shown here, the rent is being allocated to different 
departments based on their usage factor. This is an example of the concept of allocation and automated 
accounting systems help handle complex allocations programmatically.   
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 20 
 
2.13	Intercompany:	
 
Intercompany transaction is a transaction that occurs between two units of the same entity. An 
intercompany transaction occurs when one unit of an entity transacts with another unit of the same 
entity. It is a transaction between two associated companies who file a consolidated tax return or 
financial statement.  
 These transactions can occur for a variety of reasons, and normally occur as a result of the 
normal business relationships between the units of the entity.  
 An intercompany transaction is recognized in the financial records of both units of the entity as 
if it were an arm’s‐length transaction with an unrelated party. 
 These transactions might or might not be cash settled.  
 From the consolidated entity’s perspective, the transaction is initially unrealized because 
unrelated parties are not involved; therefore, certain intercompany transaction needs to be 
eliminated from the consolidated financial statements. 
We have a detailed tutorial on intercompany and those interested in understanding intercompany 
concepts in more detail should refer to the tutorial on Intercompany. 
   
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 21 
 
2.14	Trial	Balance:	
 
Double Entry Accounting System: In the double‐entry accounting system, each accounting entry results 
in two nominal accounts being debited and credited with equal amounts. Practice of recording of same 
debit amount to one account and an equal credit amount to another account, results in total debits 
being equal to total credits for all accounts in the general ledger. If the accounting entries are recorded 
without error, the aggregate balance of all accounts having positive balances (Debit Balances) will be 
equal to the aggregate balance of all accounts having negative balances (Credit Balances). 
What is a Trial Balance: Trial Balance is the compilation of balances of all accounts in the general ledgers 
into debit and credit columns. Trial Balance is usually drawn at the end of every reporting period. Trial 
Balance becomes the basis for advanced reports like Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Accounts. In 
double entry accounting system the total debts equal the total credits hence a compilation of all the 
accounts will be balanced, that is Sum of Debits will be equal to sum of credits. 
Concept of “Balancing” and “Suspense Posting” ensures that Journals in an ERP are always balanced 
resulting in a balanced trial balance. Trial Balance is used for financial reporting, management reporting, 
consolidation process and reconciliation process. 
2.0 GENERAL LEDGER CONCEPTS  2012
 
© Chartered Technofunctional Institute  Page 22 
 
 
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Commercial use is strictly prohibited without prior permission from the Chartered Technofunctional 
Institute.  If you need copies of this material for corporate training or commercial use please contact 
info@technofunc.com for further details. 
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